8.3 人类变异分类
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Seeing in Black and White
::黑白相见What do you see when you look at this photo? If you are like most Americans, you probably see a “white” soldier on the left and a “black” soldier on the right. We use the terms "white" and "black" to refer to people by race. Skin color is one of the traits commonly used to classify people into races, but what exactly is race? Do racial categories like "white” and “black” sort human beings into groups that are biologically meaningful? Or do racial categories have only historical and social significance? If we all belong to the Homo sapiens , why do we even classify people at all?
::当你看这张照片时,你看到了什么?如果你像大多数美国人一样,你可能看到左边的“白人”士兵和右边的“黑人”士兵。我们用“白人”和“黑人”这两个词来指人。肤色是通常用来将人分为种族的特征之一,但种族究竟是什么?“白人”和“黑人”等种族类别的人属于具有生物意义的群体吗?还是种族类别只具有历史和社会意义?如果我们都属于智人,我们为什么要将人分类呢?Why Classify?
::为什么分类?As humans, we seem to have a penchant for classifying and labeling people and things. It helps us establish a sense of order in the world around us. The 18th century taxonomist Carl Linnaeus, for example, classified virtually all known living things into different species, genera, families, and other taxonomic categories. His classifications were based on observable phenotypic characteristics, such as skin color. Modern biological classifications of living things are usually based on phylogenetic relationships. Phylogenies reflect evolutionary history and group together living things that are related by descent from a common ancestor .
::作为人类,我们似乎有一种对人和事物进行分类和标签的倾向。它帮助我们在我们周围的世界上建立起一种秩序感。例如,18世纪的分类学家卡尔·林奈乌斯将几乎所有已知的活物都分为不同的物种、基因、家庭和其他分类类别。他的分类基于可见的胎儿特征,如肤色。生命事物的现代生物分类通常基于植物遗传关系。基因反映了进化史,并将共同祖先的血统所关联的活物组合在一起。Starting with Linnaeus and continuing to the present, scientists and others have attempted to classify human variation. There are three basic approaches to : typological, populational, and clinal.
::从林内乌斯开始,直到现在,科学家和其他人都试图对人的差异进行分类。 有三种基本的方法:类型学、人口学和临床学。Typological Approach
::类型学方法The typological approach involves creating a typology, which is a system of discrete types, or categories. This approach was widely used by scientists up through the early 20th century. Racial classifications are typological classifications. They place people into a small number of discrete categories, or races, based on a few readily observable traits, such as skin color, hair texture, facial features, and body build.
::类型学方法涉及创建一种类型学,这是一种由离散类型或类别组成的系统,在20世纪初科学家广泛采用这一方法,种族分类是类型学分类,根据肤色、发型、面部特征和身体构造等少数容易观察到的特征,将人分为少量离散类别或种族。Racial Classifications and Racism
::种族分类和种族主义Racial classifications of humans probably go back as long as people distinguished “us” from “them.” An early “scientific” classification of humans into races is Linnaeus’ 1735 classification. He divided Homo sapiens into continental races, which he named europaeus, asiaticus, americanus, and afer. Linnaeus described these races in terms of observable physical traits. He also associated each race with different personality qualities and behaviors. For example, he described Homo sapiens europaeus as active and adventurous and Homo sapiens afer as lazy and careless. In 1795, the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach proposed five major races of Homo sapiens , which he named the caucasoid, mongoloid, negroid, American Indian, and Malayan races. Blumenbach thought that the caucasoid race was the original race, and that the other races arose in a process of “degeneration” from the caucasoids.
::只要人们把“我们”和“他们”区别开来,人类的种族分类就很可能可以追溯到人们把“我们”和“他们”区分开来。 早期人类的“科学”分类就是林内乌斯的1735年分类。 他将智人分为大陆种族,他称之为欧洲人、北极人、美洲人和美洲人。 林内乌斯用可见的物理特征描述了这些种族。他也将每个种族与不同的个性品质和行为联系在一起。 比如,他把智人欧洲人描述为活跃的、冒险的和智人,更像是懒惰的。 1795年,德国自然学家约翰·弗里德里希德·布卢门巴赫提出了五大同族人种族,他称之为科皮人、蒙戈利德人、尼戈尔曼人、美国人和马拉扬人种族。 布卢门巴赫认为幼类种族是原始种族,其他种族是在木类的“分代”过程中产生的。In 1870, the English biologist Thomas Huxley classified Homo sapiens into nine races. The map shows how Huxley thought the races were distributed worldwide. It should be noted that Huxley did not hold such strong negative stereotypes about non-European (or non-caucasoid) races as did his intellectual forebears. Huxley, however, still attributed different behaviors to racial groups that had nothing to do with the color of their skin or continent of origin.
::1870年,英国生物学家托马斯·赫斯利将智人分为九种。地图显示了赫斯利如何看待这些种族分布在世界各地。应当指出,赫斯利并没有像他的智力前辈那样对非欧洲(或非高加索)种族持有如此强烈的负面成见。 但是,赫斯利仍然把不同的行为归咎于与肤色或原籍大陆无关的种族群体。Huxley proposed that humans were categorized into nine races, and distributed geographically as shown in this map. Each color represents one of Huxley’s proposed races. These categories included “Australoid,” “Xanthochroi,” “Melanochori,” “Negroes,” and “Mongoloids,” and they are not used today.
::赫克斯利建议人类分为九种种族,并按本地图所示的地理分布。 每个肤色代表着赫克斯利提出的种族之一。 这些类别包括“奥斯拉罗 ” 、 “ Xanthochroi ” 、 “ Melanochori ” 、 “ Negroes ” 和“Mongoloids ” , 而今天它们并没有被使用。By the early 20th century, so-called scientific racism was a popular ideology. This was the idea that race is a biological concept and that human behavior is partly determined by race. Around 1950, in a series of groundbreaking studies of skeletal anatomy, anthropologist Franz Boas showed that cranial (skull) shape and size were highly malleable, depending on environmental factors (such as health and nutrition). He contrasted this with racial anthropologists' claims that head shape is a stable racial trait. In this way, Boas demonstrated that this commonly used racial trait was determined by the environment, and not just genes . Boas also worked to demonstrate that differences in human behavior are not determined primarily by innate biological dispositions, but are largely the result of cultural differences acquired through social learning .
::到了20世纪初,所谓的科学种族主义是一种流行的意识形态。这就是种族是一种生物概念,人类行为部分是由种族决定的。 1950年左右,人类学家弗朗茨·博阿斯在一系列对骨骼解剖学的开创性研究中显示,根据环境因素(如健康和营养),木质(skull)形状和体积非常可移动。 他将这一点与种族人类学家关于头部形状是稳定的种族特征的说法形成对比。 这样,博斯证明了这种常用的种族特征是由环境决定的,而不仅仅是由基因决定的。 博斯还努力证明,人类行为上的差异主要不是由遗传生物特性决定的,而是通过社会学习获得的文化差异的主要结果。Unfortunately, racism still persists today — in society at large, if not in science . This is the association of racial traits (such as skin color) with unrelated traits (such as intelligence), often leading to prejudice and discrimination against people based only on how they look. The concept of human race is real, not in a biological sense, but in a social sense. Races and racism are deeply ingrained in our history and culture, and they have real material effects on human lives.
::不幸的是,种族主义今天仍然存在——在整个社会,即使不是在科学方面,也是在科学方面,这就是种族特征(如肤色)与无关的特征(如智慧)的联系,往往导致对人的偏见和歧视,而这种偏见和歧视只是基于其外观,人类的概念是真实的,不是生物意义上的,而是社会意义上的,种族和种族主义深深植根于我们的历史和文化中,对人的生活具有真正的物质影响。Additional Problems with Typological Classification
::与类型分类有关的额外问题Besides the problem of racism, there are other problems with typological approaches to the biological classification of Homo sapiens. One problem is that most human biological traits are not either present or absent, but instead vary on a continuum. This type of distribution cannot be adequately represented by discrete categories, such as races. The typological approach also results in groupings of people that may be similar in terms of some traits, but not others. How people are grouped together depends on which traits are chosen. In addition, the number of groups that are needed to classify people depends on the number of traits that are used. The greater the number of traits, the greater the number of racial categories there must be. If racial categories depend on the traits chosen to define them, it is clear that the racial classifications are arbitrary and do not reflect biological reality.
::除了种族主义问题之外,对智人生物分类的分类还存在其他类型方法问题,其中一个问题是,大多数人类生物特征并非存在或不存在,而是因连续性而不同。这种类型的分布不能由不同类别(如种族)充分代表。这种类型分布方式还导致人群的分组,就某些特征而言可能相似,但其他特征则不同。人们的分组方式取决于选择哪些特征。此外,对人进行分类所需要的群体数量取决于使用的特征数量。特性数量越多,种族类别的数量必须越多。如果种族类别取决于所选择的界定这些特征的特征,那么种族分类显然是任意的,并不反映生物现实。Another problem with typological classifications is that they lead to the mistaken belief that people within typological categories are more similar to each other than they are to people in other categories. There is actually more variation within than between typological groups. An estimated 90 percent of human occurs between people within races, and only 10 percent occurs between races. Clearly, races are far from homogenous in terms of their genetic composition. In short, we are all more alike than we are different.
::类型分类的另一个问题是,它们导致错误的观念,认为在类型类别中的人与其他类别的人相比更加相似。实际上,在类型类别中存在的差异比在类型类别中的差异更大。 据估计,90%的人发生在种族内部,只有10%的人发生在种族之间。显然,种族的遗传构成远非同质。简言之,我们比我们不同。Populational Approach
::人口方法By the middle of the 20th century, scientists started advocating a populational approach to classifying Homo sapiens. This approach is based on the idea that the breeding is the only biologically meaningful group. The breeding population is the unit of evolution, and it includes people who have mated and produced offspring together for many generations. As a result, members of the same breeding population should share many genetic traits. You would also expect them to have many of the same phenotypic traits, because of their similar genetic makeup.
::到20世纪中叶,科学家们开始倡导对智人进行人口分类的方法。这个方法基于这样的理念,即繁殖是唯一具有生物意义的群体。繁殖人口是进化的单位,它包括世代相伴并生后代的人。因此,同种繁殖人口的成员应该分享许多遗传特征。你也会期望他们拥有许多相同的胎儿特征,因为他们的基因构成相似。While the populational approach makes sense in theory , in reality, it can rarely be applied, because most human populations are not closed breeding populations. Some people have always selected mates from outside their local population (even mating with archaic humans such as Neanderthals). This tendency has increased dramatically in recent centuries with the advent of efficient means of traveling long distances. As a consequence, there are very few remaining distinct breeding populations within the human species.
::虽然从理论上讲,人口方法在理论上是有道理的,但在现实中,它很少可以应用,因为大多数人口不是封闭的育种人口,有些人总是从当地人口之外挑选伴侣(甚至与像尼安德特人这样的古老人类交配),最近几个世纪,随着有效长途旅行手段的到来,这一趋势急剧增加。因此,人类物种中尚存的截然不同的育种人口寥寥无几。An example of one such population is the Sentinelese, a small population of hunter-gatherers who live alone on a small island in the Andaman Islands (see the map ). The Sentinelese are thought to be direct descendants of the first modern humans to leave Africa, and they may have lived in the Andaman Islands for as long as 60 thousand years. The Sentinelese are also one of the most isolated human populations on Earth. The fact that their language is distinctly different from other Andaman Islands languages is evidence that they have had little contact with other people for thousands of years. Although closed breeding populations (such as the Sentinelese) may be useful for investigating questions about evolutionary processes, they are not useful for classifying most of humanity.
::其中一个例子就是哨兵(Sentineles),这是人数不多的狩猎采集者,他们独自生活在安达曼群岛的一个小岛上(见地图)。哨兵被认为是第一批离开非洲的现代人类的直接后代,他们可能已经在安达曼群岛居住了6万年。哨兵也是地球上最孤立的人类人口之一。他们的语言与其他安达曼群岛语言截然不同,这一事实证明他们几千年来很少接触其他人。尽管封闭的育种人口(如哨兵)可能有助于调查有关进化过程的问题,但对于将大多数人类分类来说却毫无用处。The Andaman Islands are boxed in red on this map of South and Southeast Asia.
::安达曼群岛在南亚和东南亚地图上 被红色框框。Clinal Approach
::临床方法By the 1960s, scientists began to use a clinal approach to classify human variation. This approach maps variation in traits over geographic regions (such as continents) or even worldwide. Clinal models are a useful way of describing human variation that does not lead to discrete races or other categories of people.
::到1960年代,科学家们开始使用临床方法对人类变异进行分类,该方法绘制了地理区域(如大陆)乃至全世界特征差异图。 临床模型是描述人类变异的有用方法,不会导致离散种族或其他类别的人。you can see a worldwide clinal map for type O in the human ABO blood group system. The frequency of this trait is shown for the indigenous populations of various regions. It is lowest throughout Asia and highest in Native American populations in both North and South America. This geographic distribution results from the complex interaction of a variety of factors, including , , and . You can read more about geographic variation in in the concept Variation in Blood Types.
::您可以看到人类ABO血族系统中O类世界性临床图。这种特征的频率为不同区域的土著人口所显示。在亚洲,该特征的频率最低,北美和南美洲的美洲土著人口比例最高。这种地理分布是各种因素复杂相互作用的结果,其中包括 , 和 。您可以阅读更多关于血液类型变化概念的地理差异的信息。Distribution of type O blood in indigenous populations of the world
::全世界土著居民O型血液的分布情况Clinal maps for many genetic traits show variation that changes gradually from one geographic area to another, which may happen because of the nature of gene flow. Gene flow occurs when mating takes place between people in different populations. The likelihood of mating with others depends on their distance from us. You may not marry the boy or girl next door, but your mate is more likely to be someone in the same state or country than someone on another continent.
::许多遗传特征的临床地图显示,不同地理区域之间会逐渐发生变化,这可能会由于基因流动的性质而发生。基因流动发生在不同人口群体之间交配时。与其他人交配的可能性取决于他们与我们之间的距离。你可能不能与隔壁的男孩或女孩结婚,但你的伴侣更有可能是同一州或同一国家的人,而不是另一个大陆的人。Natural selection has a major impact on the clinal distribution of some traits, because variation in the traits tracks variation in selective pressures. For example, the environmental stressor of malaria varies throughout Africa with climate , as you can see in the left-hand map . The sickle trait that protects from malaria has a similar distribution, as shown in the right-hand map.
::自然选择对某些特性的临床分布有重大影响,因为特性的变异跟踪选择性压力的变化。 例如,非洲各地疟疾的环境压力因气候而异,从左手图中可以看到。 防疟疾的镰状特性也有类似的分布,如右手图所示。Maps comparing the distribution of malaria (left) and sickle cell trait (right) in Africa
::比较非洲疟疾(左)和镰状细胞特征(右)分布情况的地图Feature: Human Biology in the News
::特著:《新闻》中的人类生物学The racism associated with racial classifications of human beings has been the subject of a great deal of media attention in the past few years, with police brutality toward and killings of numerous unarmed African Americans occurring across the United States. Along with racial profiling and the vastly disproportionate numbers of unemployed and imprisoned African Americans, these police actions are strong indicators of the persistence of institutionalized racism in the United States.
::过去几年来,与人类种族分类有关的种族主义一直受到媒体的大量关注,在美国各地,警察对许多手无寸铁的非裔美国人的暴行和杀戮发生在全美国各地,除了种族貌相和大量失业和被监禁的非裔美国人外,这些警察行动还有力地表明美国持续存在制度化的种族主义。In response to recent racism, a new social movement called Black Lives Matter (BLM), arose in the summer of 2013. The movement was instigated by the acquittal of George Zimmerman for the shooting death of African American youth Trayvon Martin. Since then, the BLM movement has gained increasing media attention as it campaigns against violence toward African Americans and broader issues of racial inequality in the United States criminal justice system. BLM originally used social media — including hashtag activism — to reach thousands of people rapidly. More recently, BLM has adopted a variety of tactics. Generally, the goal is to take actions that make people uncomfortable enough that they must address the issues. BLM has held rallies, demonstrations, die-ins, and marches (see photo ). They have also interrupted political candidates during stump speeches in the 2016 presidential campaigns. Musical artists, including Kendrick Lamar and Beyoncé, have used their work to support the BLM movement and to speak out against racially-motivated police violence. In addition, memes on social media have been used as tools for garnering movement support.
::针对最近出现的种族主义,2013年夏天出现了名为 " 黑人生命物质 " (BLM)的新社会运动,2013年夏季,该运动被乔治·齐默曼因射杀非裔美国人青年Trayvon Martin而宣告无罪,自此以后,BLM运动在反对针对非裔美国人的暴力行为和美国刑事司法系统中更广泛的种族不平等问题的运动中日益受到媒体的关注。BLM最初利用社交媒体(包括标签活动)迅速接触数千人,最近,BLM采取了各种策略。一般而言,目标是采取行动,使人们感到不适,不得不解决问题。BLM举行了集会、示威、死亡和游行(见照片),他们在2016年总统竞选期间还打断了政治候选人。音乐艺术家,包括Kendrick Lamar和Beyoncé,利用他们的工作支持BLM运动,并发表反对出于种族动机的警察暴力。此外,社交媒体上的Memmes还被用作争取运动支持的工具。This photo shows a Black Lives Matter march in St. Paul, Minnesota, in September 2015. The purpose of the march was to call attention to St. Paul police brutality in the arrest of an autistic African American youth.
::这张照片展示了2015年9月明尼苏达州圣保罗的黑人生命物质游行。 游行的目的是提醒人们注意圣保罗警方在逮捕一名自闭症非裔美国人青年时的暴行。The very name of this new social movement has made the skin-color designation of racial classification and racism part of its rallying cry and a source of pride . This is similar to the use of the term black in the names of previous anti-racism social movements, including the Black Power Movement and Black Panthers, as well as in anti-racist slogans, such as “Black is beautiful.” By claiming the skin-color designator of race as their own, they may weaken its effect as a tool against them.
::这一新的社会运动本身的名称使得种族分类和种族主义的肤色命名成为其集会呼声和自豪感的一部分。 这类似于在以前的反种族主义社会运动,包括黑人权利运动和黑豹运动的名称中以及在反种族主义口号,如“黑人是美丽的 ” , 以及“黑人是美丽的 ” 等反种族主义口号中使用的“黑人”一词。 通过将种族的肤色标志称为自己的种族,它们可能会削弱其作为反种族主义工具的效果。The success of BLM in bringing attention to issues of racism, especially in policing and the criminal justice system, cannot be denied. #BlackLivesMatter was voted as one of the twelve hashtags that changed the world in 2014. That same year, the founders of BLM were listed as runners-up for The Advocate’s Person of the Year, and in 2015, BLM came in fourth of the eight candidates chosen as contenders for the Time Magazine Person of the Year award. Unfortunately, institutionalized racism still persists in the United States, as well as in many other countries where people with dark skin represent a minority of the population. We still have a long way to go before the ugly effects of racial classifications are no longer felt in society — if this time ever comes.
::布拉迪斯拉发联盟成功地提醒人们关注种族主义问题,特别是在警务和刑事司法系统方面,这一点不可否认。 #2014年,黑人联盟作为改变世界的12个标签之一被投了票。 同年,布拉迪斯拉发联盟的创始人被列为该年倡导者的竞选者,2015年,布拉迪斯拉发联盟在被选为年度《时代杂志人物》奖的八名候选人中位居第四。 不幸的是,制度化的种族主义在美国以及黑皮人占人口少数的许多其他国家依然存在。 在种族分类的丑恶影响消失之前,我们还有很长的路要走 — — 如果这一时刻发生的话。Summary
::摘要-
Humans seem to have a need to classify and label people based on their similarities and differences. Three approaches to classifying human variation include typological, populational, and clinal approaches.
::人类似乎需要根据异同对人进行分类和标签。 三种人类变异分类方法包括类型学、人口学和临床学。 -
The typological approach involves creating a typology, which is a system of discrete categories, or races. This approach was widely used by scientists until the early 20th century. Racial categories are based on observable phenotypic traits (such as skin color), but other traits and behaviors are often assumed to apply to racial groups, as well. The use of racial classifications often leads to racism.
::类型学方法涉及创建一种类型学,这是一种由不同类别或种族组成的系统,在20世纪初以前,这一方法一直被科学家广泛采用,种族分类基于可观测到的肤色特征(如肤色),但其他特征和行为通常被认为也适用于种族群体,使用种族分类往往导致种族主义。 -
By the mid-20th century, scientists started advocating a population approach. This assumes that the breeding population, which is the unit of evolution, is the only biologically meaningful group. While this approach makes sense in theory, in reality, it can rarely be applied to actual human populations. With few exceptions, most human populations are not closed breeding populations.
::到20世纪中叶,科学家开始倡导人口方法。 这假定繁殖人口是进化的单位,是唯一具有生物意义的群体。 虽然这种方法在理论上是有道理的,但实际上很少能适用于实际的人类人口。 除了少数例外,大多数人类人口不是封闭的繁殖人口。 -
By the 1960s, scientists began to use a clinal approach to classify human variation. This approach maps variation in the frequency of traits or alleles over geographic regions or worldwide. Clinal maps for many genetic traits show variation that changes gradually from one geographic area to another. This type of distribution may result from gene flow and/or natural selection.
::到1960年代,科学家开始使用临床方法对人类变异进行分类,该方法绘制了不同地理区域或世界范围内特性或异象频率的变化图,许多遗传特性的临床图显示,不同地理区域间的变化是逐渐变化的,这种类型的分布可能是基因流动和/或自然选择的结果。
Review
::回顾1. Describe the typological approach to classifying human variation.
::1. 描述人类变异分类的分类方法。2. Discuss why typological classifications of Homo sapiens are associated with racism.
::2. 讨论为何将智人类型分类与种族主义联系起来。3. Why is the breeding population considered to be the most meaningful biological group?
::3. 为什么繁殖人口被视为最有意义的生物群体?4. Explain why it is generally unrealistic to apply a populational approach to classifying the human species.
::4. 解释为什么在人类物种分类中采用人口统计方法通常不现实。5. What does a clinal map show?
::5. 临床地图显示什么?6. Explain how gene flow and natural selection can result in a gradual change in the frequency of a trait over geographic space.
::6. 解释基因流动和自然选择如何导致地理空间特征频率的逐渐变化。7. Most human traits vary on a continuum. Explain why this presents a problem for the typological classification approach.
::7. 大多数人类特征在连续体上各有不同,解释为什么这给类型分类方法带来问题。8. True or False: Most genetic variation occurs between people of different races.
::8. 真实或假:大多数遗传变异发生在不同种族的人之间。9. True or False: The concept of race is more of a social and cultural construct than a biological reality.
::9. 真实或假:种族概念与其说是一种生物现实,不如说是一种社会和文化结构。10. True or False: Closed breeding populations exist in humans, but they are not common.
::10. 真实或假:封闭的繁殖人口存在于人类中,但并不常见。11. Do you think that a region of the world that has a low incidence of malaria would have a high or low frequency of the sickle cell trait? Explain your answer.
::11. 你是否认为世界上疟疾发病率较低的地区,其镰状细胞特征会高发或低发?解释你的答复。12. Modern biological classification is usually based on...
::12. 现代生物分类通常基于:a. physical appearance
::a. 外观b. evolutionary history
::b. 演变历史c. behavioral characteristics
::c. 行为特征d. social or cultural characteristics
::d. 社会或文化特征13. Name the 18 th century taxonomist that classified virtually all known living things.
::13. 说出18世纪的分类学家的名字,将几乎所有已知的生物分类。14. Which approach best describes human genetic variation over a geographic area without relying on inaccurate and arbitrary categorization of groups of people?
::14. 哪种方法最能说明某一地理区域的人类基因变异,而不必依赖不准确和任意的人群分类?a. typological approach
::a. 类型学方法b. populational approach
::b. 人口统计方法c. clinal approach
::c. 临床方法d. racial classification
::d. 种族分类Explore More
::探索更多Learn about the e ugenics movement and our nation's past here:
::了解优生运动和我们国家的过去:Watch as biologist Dr. Rick Kittles discusses how the concept of race does not align with our current understanding of genetic s, and how that can impact the study of disease.
::Rick Kittles博士讨论种族概念如何与我们目前对遗传学的理解不相符, 以及这如何影响疾病研究。 -
Humans seem to have a need to classify and label people based on their similarities and differences. Three approaches to classifying human variation include typological, populational, and clinal approaches.
