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  • 肾上腺

    Eek!
    ::爱!

    Being bitten on the nose by an eel certainly qualifies as a frightening experience! The fear this man is experiencing produces the same physiological responses in most people  —  racing heart, rapid , clammy hands. These and other fight-or- flight responses prepare the body to either defend itself or run away from danger. Why does fear elicit these changes in the body? The responses occur in large part because of secreted by the adrenal glands.
    ::被一头鹅咬到鼻子上,这当然是一种可怕的经历!这个男人所经历的恐惧在大多数人身上产生同样的生理反应—— 心跳加速,手叫响,这些和其他战斗或飞行反应使身体能够自卫或逃离危险。为什么恐惧会引起身体的这些变化?反应在很大程度上是由于肾上腺的隐蔽而发生的。

    Introduction to the Adrenal Glands
    ::肾上腺病介绍

    The adrenal glands are that produce a variety of hormones. Adrenal hormones include the fight-or-flight hormone adrenaline and the steroid hormone cortisol. The two adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body, just above the , as shown in the figure . The right adrenal gland (on the left in the figure) is smaller and has a pyramidal shape. The left adrenal gland (on the right in the figure) is larger and has a half-moon shape.
    ::肾上腺是产生各种激素的。肾上腺素包括抗争或飞行激素肾上腺素和类固醇激素皮质素。两种肾上腺素位于身体两侧,仅高于身体两侧,如图所示。右肾上腺(图中左侧)较小,具有金字塔形状。左肾上腺(图中右侧)较大,半月形状。

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    Each of the two adrenal glands is found above a kidney.
    ::两个肾上腺体的每一个都在肾上腺上方。

    Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts, and each part has a different function, although both parts produce hormones. There is an outer layer, called the adrenal cortex, which produces steroid hormones including cortisol. There is also an inner layer, called the adrenal medulla, which produces non-steroid hormones including adrenaline.
    ::每个肾上腺分两个不同的部分,每个部分都有不同的功能,尽管两个部分都产生荷尔蒙。有一个外层,叫做肾上腺皮层,它产生类固醇激素,包括皮质素。还有一个内层,叫做肾上腺膜,它产生非细胞激素,包括肾上腺素。

    Adrenal Cortex
    ::肾上腺科特克斯

    The adrenal cortex, or outer layer of the adrenal gland, is divided into three additional layers, called zones (see figure ). Each zone has distinct that produce different hormones from the common precursor molecule cholesterol, which is a .
    ::肾上腺皮层或肾上腺外层又分为三个层次,称为区(见图)。

    1. Zona glomerulosa is the outermost layer of the adrenal cortex. It lies immediately under the outer fibrous capsule that encloses the adrenal gland.
      ::Zona 球球素是肾上腺皮层的最外层,紧紧就躺在外纤维胶囊下面,囊内有肾上腺。
    2. Zona fasciculata is the middle layer of the adrenal cortex. It is the largest of the three zones, accounting for nearly 80 percent of the adrenal cortex.
      ::Zona fasciculata是肾上腺皮层的中间层,是三个区域中最大的一个,占肾上腺皮层的近80%。
    3. Zona reticularis is the innermost layer of the adrenal cortex. It is directly adjacent to the medulla of the adrenal gland.
      ::Zona 矩形是肾上腺皮层最深层的一层,直接靠近肾上腺的乳房。

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    The adrenal cortex is divided into the three zones shown here. Each zone produces a different type of steroid hormone. This photomicrograph also shows the medulla of the adrenal gland.
    ::肾上腺皮层分为三个区域,每个区域产生不同的类固醇荷尔蒙。该照片还显示肾上腺的中拉。

    Types of Adrenal Cortex Hormones
    ::肾上激素类型

    Hormones produced by the adrenal cortex are known  by the general term corticosteroids. As steroid hormones, corticosteroids are endocrine hormones that are made of lipids and exert their effects on target cells by crossing the plasma membrane and binding with receptors within the cytoplasm . A steroid hormone and its receptor form a complex that enters the and affects . There are three types of corticosteroids synthesized and secreted by the adrenal cortex. Each type is produced by a different zone of the adrenal cortex, as shown in the figure .
    ::肾上腺皮质激素产生的荷尔蒙,作为类固醇激素,类固醇是内分泌激素,由脂质制成,通过血浆膜对目标细胞产生影响,并在细胞膜内与受体结合。类固醇激素及其受体形成一个综合体,进入并受到影响。有三种类固醇类固醇,由肾上腺皮质合成并隐蔽,每种类型都由肾上腺皮质的不同区域产生,如图所示。

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    The three zones of the adrenal cortex — as well as the adrenal medulla — are each associated with a specific type of hormone.
    ::肾上腺皮层的三个区——以及肾上腺膜——每个区都与一种特定的激素类型有关。

    Mineralocorticoids
    ::矿物类

    Mineralocorticoids are produced in the zona glomerulosa and include the hormone aldosterone. These hormones help control the balance of mineral salts (electrolytes) in the body. In the kidneys, aldosterone increases the reabsorption of sodium ions and the excretion of potassium ions. Aldosterone also stimulates the retention of sodium ions by cells in the colon and by the sweat glands . The amount of sodium in the body affects the volume of extracellular fluids (including the blood) and thereby affects . In this way, mineralocorticoids help control volume and blood pressure.
    ::这些激素有助于控制体内矿物盐(叶酸盐)的平衡。在肾脏中,藻酮增加了钠离子的再吸附和钾离子的排泄。阿尔多松还刺激细胞在结肠和血汗腺中保留钠离子。体内的钠量影响外细胞液(包括血液)的体积,从而影响体积。通过这种方式,矿物质会帮助控制体积和血压。

    Glucocorticoids
    ::Glucocortics 液凝胶类

    Glucocorticoids are produced in the zona fasciculata and include the hormone cortisol, which is released in repsonse to stress and is considered the primary stress hormone. Glucocorticoids  help control the rate of metabolism of , fats, and sugars. In general, they increase the level of glucose and fatty acids circulating in the blood. Cells rely primarily on glucose for energy , but they can also use fatty acids for energy as an alternative to glucose. Glucocorticoids are also involved in suppression of the immune system , having a potent anti-inflammatory effect. In addition, cortisol reduces the production of new and decreases absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal tract .
    ::Glucocorticoids在zona fasciulata中生产,包括激素 corticols,该物质在抗应激反应中释放出来,被认为是主要的压力激素。Glucocorticoids帮助控制了脂肪和糖的新陈代谢速度。一般而言,它们增加了血液中循环的葡萄糖和脂肪酸水平。细胞主要依靠葡萄糖作为能量,但是它们也可以使用脂肪酸作为替代葡萄糖的能源。Glucocorticroids也参与抑制免疫系统,具有强大的抗炎效应。此外,Colotolols减少了胃肠道吸收钙的新生产和减少。

    Androgens
    ::体外体体

    Androgens are produced in the zona reticularis and include the hormone DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone). Androgens are a general term for male sex hormones , although this is somewhat misleading, as adrenal cortex androgens are produced by both males and females. In adult males, they are converted to more potent androgens, such as testosterone in the male gonads (testes). In adult females, they are converted to female sex hormones called estrogens in the female gonads (ovaries).
    ::甲状腺素是用区间矩形生成的,包括荷尔蒙DHEA(dehyleepiandrosterone),甲状腺素是男性性激素的一般术语,尽管这有点误导性,因为雄性和雌性都会产生肾上腺皮质和rogens,在成年男性中,它们被转化成较强的和青蛙,如雄性甲状腺中的睾丸酮(测试),在成年女性中,它们被转换成雌性激素(雌性甲状腺中的雌激素)。

    Regulation of Adrenal Cortex Hormones
    ::肾上激素调控

    Steroid hormone production by the three zones of the adrenal cortex is regulated by hormones secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland , as well as by other physiological stimuli . For example, the production of glucocorticoids such as cortisol is stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary, which in turn is stimulated by corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus . When levels of glucocorticoids start to rise too high, they provide negative feedback to the to stop secreting CRH and ACTH, respectively. This negative feedback mechanism is illustrated in the figure . The opposite occurs when levels of glucocorticoids start to fall too low.
    ::肾上腺皮层的三个区域对肾上腺激素生产进行调控。 由皮下腺前额叶和其他生理刺激物秘而不宣的激素,例如,皮质质素等葡萄cocortoriales的生产是由前部皮下垂体激素(ACTH)刺激的,而前部皮下脑膜皮质释放激素(CRH)反过来又由皮下脑的皮下脑释放激素(CRH)刺激的。 当葡萄皮质素水平开始升高太高时,它们会为停止CRH和ACTH的保密分别提供负面反馈。这个负面反馈机制在图中显示了。相反的情况是,当葡萄皮质素的含量开始过低时会发生。

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    The negative feedback loop that controls production of glucocorticoids includes the pituitary gland and hypothalamus, in addition to the adrenal cortex.
    ::除了肾上腺皮层外,控制葡萄球质生产的负面反馈循环还包括脑垂状腺和低脑膜。

    Adrenal Medulla
    ::肾上肾上腺

    The adrenal medulla is at the center of each adrenal gland and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex. It contains a dense network of into which it secretes its hormones. The hormones synthesized and secreted by the adrenal medulla are generally known as  catecholamines , and they include adrenaline (also called epinephrine) and noradrenaline (also called norepinephrine). These water-soluble, non-steroid hormones are made of amino acids . As non-steroid hormones, they cannot cross the plasma membrane of target cells. Instead, they exert their effects by binding to receptors on the surface of target cells. The binding of hormone and receptor activates an enzyme in the plasma membrane that controls a second messenger . It is the second messenger that influences processes inside the cell.
    ::肾上腺素位于各肾上腺体的中心,周围都是肾上腺素的皮层。 它包含一个密集的网络, 它隐藏了它的荷尔蒙。 由肾上腺素合成和秘密的荷尔蒙一般被称为肾上腺素, 它们包括肾上腺素( 也称为肾上腺素) 和肾上腺素( 也称为无肾上腺素 ) 。 这些水溶性、 非细胞激素是由氨基酸制成的。 作为非细胞激素, 它们无法穿过目标细胞的等离子膜。 相反, 它们通过绑定感应器在目标细胞表面产生效果。 荷尔蒙和感应器的结合作用在控制第二个信使器的血浆膜中激活酶。 这是影响细胞内过程的第二个信使。

    Catecholamines function to produce a rapid response throughout the body in stressful situations. They bring about such changes as increased heart rate, more rapid breathing, constriction of blood vessels in certain parts of the body, and an increase in blood pressure. The release of catecholamines by the adrenal medulla is stimulated by activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system .
    ::Catecholamines的作用是在整个身体处于紧张状况下作出迅速反应,从而带来诸如心率上升、呼吸速度加快、身体某些部分血管收缩和血压增加等变化。 肾上腺内膜膜膜的释放催化氯胺酮是通过激活自主神经系统的同情分化而得到刺激的。

    Disorders of the Adrenal Glands
    ::肾上腺病

    Disorders of the adrenal glands generally include either hypersecretion or hyposecretion of adrenal hormones. The underlying cause of the abnormal secretion may be a problem with the adrenal glands or with the pituitary gland, which controls adrenal cortex hormone production. Both adrenal and pituitary glands are subject to the formation of tumors , which may cause adrenal disorders. The adrenal gland may also be affected by infections or .
    ::肾上腺的紊乱一般包括肾上腺激素的高度机密或低机密。异常分泌的根本原因可能是肾上腺或控制肾上腺荷尔蒙生产的皮下腺的问题。肾上腺和皮下腺都受到肿瘤的形成,可能引发肾上腺紊乱。肾上腺也可能受到感染或影响。

    Adrenal Hypersecretion: Cushing’s Syndrome
    ::肾上高度机密:库兴综合症

    Hypersecretion of the glucocorticoid hormone cortisol leads to a disorder called   Cushing’s syndrome. The most common cause of Cushing’s syndrome is a pituitary tumor, which causes excessive production of ACTH. The disease produces a wide variety of signs and symptoms, which may include obesity , , high blood pressure (hypertension), excessive body hair, osteoporosis, and depression. A distinctive sign of Cushing’s syndrome is the appearance of stretch marks in the skin, as the skin becomes progressively thinner. Another distinctive sign is a moon face (shown in the section   Introduction to the Endocrine System) , in which fat deposits give the face a rounded appearance. Treatment of Cushing’s syndrome depends on its cause and may include surgery to remove a tumor or medications to suppress activity of the adrenal glands.
    ::高血压热质激素皮质素的高度机密导致一种被称为库辛综合症的紊乱。 库辛综合症最常见的原因就是导致ACTH过度生产的脑膜肿瘤。 疾病产生了各种各样的症状和症状,包括肥胖、高血压(高血压 ) 、 过度身体毛发、骨质疏松和抑郁。 库辛综合症的一个明显迹象是皮肤上出现伸缩痕迹,皮肤逐渐变薄。 另一个显著的标志是月亮脸(内分泌系统导言部分的表情),脂肪矿床使脸四面可见。 库辛综合症的治疗取决于其原因,可能包括手术以移除肿瘤或药物抑制肾上腺的活动。

    Adrenal Hyposecretion: Addison’s Disease
    ::肾上肾上腺缺陷:Addison病

    Hyposecretion of the glucocorticoid hormone cortisol leads to a disorder called   Addison’s disease. There may also be hyposecretion of mineralocorticoids with this disorder. Addison’s disease is generally an autoimmune disorder, in which the immune system produces abnormal antibodies that attack cells of the adrenal cortex. Untreated infections, especially of tuberculosis , may also damage the adrenal cortex and cause Addison’s disease. A third possible cause is decreased output of ACTH by the pituitary gland, generally due to a pituitary tumor. A distinctive sign of Addison’s disease is hyperpigmentation of the skin (see the photos ). Other symptoms tend to be nonspecific and include excessive fatigue. Addison’s disease is generally treated with replacement hormones in pill form.
    ::葡萄皮激素激素皮质醇激素合物的液态排泄液会引发一种被称为Addison病的疾病。 这种疾病还可能存在矿质类的隐蔽。 Addison病一般是一种自体免疫紊乱,免疫系统会产生攻击肾上腺皮细胞的异常抗体。 未经处理的感染,特别是肺结核,也可能损害肾上腺皮,并导致Addison病。 第三个可能的原因是脑下垂腺的ACTH产值下降,这通常是由于皮下肿瘤造成的。 亚迪森病的明显特征是皮肤高血压(见照片 ) 。 其他症状往往不具体,包括过度疲劳。 亚迪森病通常以药剂形式用替代荷尔蒙进行治疗。

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    Hyperpigmentation of the skin is a characteristic sign of Addison’s disease. The photo on the left shows the dark skin pigmentation of an Addison’s patient before treatment. The photo on the right shows the same patient after treatment.
    ::皮肤高血压是爱迪生病的典型症状。 左边的照片显示了爱迪生病人在治疗前的皮肤暗色。 右边的照片显示了治疗后同一位病人的皮肤颜色。

    Feature: My Human Body
    ::特质:我的人体

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    Does just looking at this photo cause you to break out in a cold sweat and experience heart palpitations? Imagine how scary it would be to actually  fling yourself backward off a tall building like the BASE jumper in the photo! There would be very little time to use a parachute to slow your fall before you hit the ground. BASE jumping is called the most dangerous sport on Earth. In fact, it is so dangerous that it is outlawed in some places.
    ::仅仅看这张照片是否就会让你在寒冷的汗水中冒出来,体验心跳?想象一下,把自己从像照片中的BASE跳伞者那样高高的建筑上倒下去会有多可怕?在你落地之前,用降落伞来减速的时间太少了。BASE跳伞被称为地球上最危险的运动。事实上,在有些地方,跳伞是违法的,这是非常危险的。

    People who participate in such dangerous activities as BASE jumping are likely to be adrenaline “junkies.” They are addicted to the adrenaline rush and euphoria — or “high” — it causes when their fight-or-flight response is triggered by danger. Why does adrenaline have this effect? Adrenaline is closely related to dopamine, a chemical messenger in the brain that plays a major role in pleasure and addiction.
    ::参与诸如BASE跳跃等危险活动的人很可能是肾上腺素“瘾君子 ” 。 他们沉迷于肾上腺素的急躁和兴奋情绪 — — 或“高度 ” — —当他们的战斗或飞行反应是危险引发的时,就会引起这种反应。为什么肾上腺素有这种效果?肾上腺素与多巴胺密切相关,多巴胺是大脑中的化学传播者,在快感和上瘾中起着重要作用。

    Adrenaline addicts don’t have to participate in BASE jumping or other dangerous sports to get an adrenaline rush. They might choose a dangerous occupation like firefighting, participate in risky behaviors like reckless driving or bank robbing, or just pick fights with other people. They might even create their own stress by always taking on too much work or delaying projects until close to their deadline.
    ::肾上腺素上瘾者不必参加BASE跳跃或其他危险的运动以获得肾上腺素刺激。 他们可能选择像消防这样的危险职业,参与危险行为,如鲁莽驾驶或银行抢劫,或只是与其他人争吵。 他们甚至可能制造自己的压力,总是承担过多的工作或推迟项目,直到接近最后期限。

    While some excitement in one’s life is generally a good thing, always putting oneself in danger or constantly being under stress are obviously not good things. If you think you might be an adrenaline addict, note that there are healthier ways to experience a hormonal “high.” Running, biking, or participating in some other form of vigorous aerobic causes the pituitary gland and hypothalamus to produce opiate-like endorphins, leading to a so-called “runner’s high.” Like the euphoric feeling adrenaline causes, a runner’s high may last for hours.
    ::尽管一个人生命中的某些兴奋一般是一件好事,但总是把自己置于危险之中或不断处于压力之下显然不是一件好事。 如果你认为自己可能是肾上腺素上瘾者,那么请注意,有更健康的办法来体验荷尔蒙“高 ” 。 跑步、骑自行车或参加某种其他形式的强力有氧运动,导致脑垂体腺和低脑瘤产生类阿片类内啡,从而导致所谓的“龙头高 ” 。 与令人兴奋的肾上腺素成因一样,跑步者高可能持续数小时。

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • The adrenal glands are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones. The two adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body, just above the kidneys. Each gland has two layers: an outer layer called the adrenal cortex and an inner layer called the adrenal medulla.
      ::肾上腺是产生各种荷尔蒙的内分泌腺。两种肾上腺位于身体两侧,就在肾上方。每根腺有两层:外层为肾上腺,内层为肾上腺。内层为肾上腺,内层为肾上腺。
    • The adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones called by the general term corticosteroids, of which there are three types: mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone), which helps control electrolyte balance; glucocorticoids (such as cortisol), which helps control the rate of metabolism, suppresses the immune system, and is the major stress hormone; and androgens (such as DHEA), which is converted to sex hormones in the gonads.
      ::肾上腺皮质激素产生一般术语Corticocosteroid所称的类固醇激素,其中有三种类型:有助于控制电解平衡的矿物质类(如阿多斯特酮);有助于控制新陈代谢速度、抑制免疫系统、是主要应激荷尔蒙的凝胶类(如皮质素);以及转化为淋病性激素的rogens(如DHEA)。
    • The adrenal medulla produces non-steroid catecholamine hormones, including adrenaline and noradrenaline. These hormones stimulate the fight-or-flight response.
      ::肾上腺内分泌会产生非分子小儿麻痹激素,包括肾上腺素和Nradrenaline。这些激素会刺激战斗或飞行反应。
    • Disorders of the adrenal glands generally include either hypersecretion or hyposecretion of adrenal hormones. The cause may be a problem with the adrenal glands or with the pituitary gland, which controls adrenal cortex hormone production. Examples include Cushing’s syndrome — in which there is hypersecretion of cortisol — and Addison’s disease, in which there is hyposecretion of cortisol and mineralocorticoids.
      ::肾上腺的紊乱一般包括肾上腺激素的高度机密或低机密性。 原因可能是肾上腺或控制肾上腺生产的脑下垂腺的问题。 例子包括库辛综合症 — — 在这种综合症中,皮质质素高度机密 — — 和阿迪森病,在这种综合症中,皮质素和矿质类的低机密性。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. Describe the structure and location of the adrenal glands.
    ::1. 描述肾上腺的结构和位置。

    2. Compare and contrast the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.
    ::2. 比较和对比肾上腺皮层和肾上腺膜。

    3. Identify the three layers of the adrenal cortex and the type of hormones each layer produces.
    ::3. 确定肾上腺皮层的三层和每一层产生的荷尔蒙类型。

    4. Give an example of each type of corticosteroid and state its function.
    ::4. 举例说明每一种园艺类机器人,并说明其功能。

    5. Explain how the production of glucocorticoids is regulated.
    ::5. 解释如何管制葡萄凝胶类的生产。

    6. What is a catecholamine? Give an example of a catecholamine and state its function.
    ::6.什么是亚茶酚胺?举一例说明亚茶酚胺并说明其功能。

    7. Compare and contrast Cushing’s syndrome and Addison’s disease.
    ::7. 比较和对比Cushing综合症和Addison病。

    8. Cortisol is a type of _____________________.
    ::8. Cortisol是一种类型 。

    a. corticosteroid
    ::a. 园艺机器人

    b. mineralocorticoid
    ::b. 矿物类物质

    c. glucocorticoid
    ::c. 溶凝胶类

    d. A and C
    ::d. A和C

     

    9. True or False:  The adrenal glands help regulate the body’s stress response, electrolyte balance, and reproductive functions.
    ::9. 真实或假:肾上腺有助于调节身体的应激反应、电解平衡和生殖功能。

     

    10. True or False:  The left adrenal gland produces steroid hormones, while the right adrenal gland produces non-steroid hormones.
    ::10. 真实或假:左肾上腺产生类固醇激素,右肾上腺产生非类固醇激素。

     

    11. Would it be beneficial  to give someone with Cushing’s syndrome more ACTH? Explain your answer.
    ::11. 给某个患有库辛综合症的人更多ACTH是否有益? 解释你的答复。

     

    12. What are two ways in which the nervous system (which includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves) controls the adrenal gland?
    ::12. 神经系统(包括大脑、脊髓和神经)以什么两种方式控制肾上腺?

     

    13. If the cortisol level  rises too high, the amount of CRH secreted will normally...
    ::13. 如果皮质醇水平升高太高,隐藏的CRH数量通常会...

    a. not change
    ::a. 不变

    b. become excessively high
    ::b. 过高;

    c. become slightly higher
    ::c. 略高一点;

    d. decrease
    ::d. 减少量

     

    14. Noradrenaline is also called ___________________.
    ::14. Noradrenaline也叫Nradrenaline。

    a. norepinephrine
    ::a. norepinephineiner(无肾上腺素)

    b. adrenaline
    ::b. 肾上腺素

    c. adrenocorticotropin
    ::c. 子离子体电离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体离子体

    d. glucocorticoid
    ::d. 溶胶凝胶类

     

    15. Explain why a pituitary tumor can cause either hypersecretion or hyposecretion of cortisol.
    ::15. 解释为何脑膜肿瘤可导致高机密或高机密的皮质醇。

    Explore More
    ::探索更多

    Watch the following video for a dramatic illustration of the fight-or-flight response as it happens  in real life. 
    ::观看以下影片, 以戏剧性地展示战斗或飞行的反应, 因为它发生在现实生活中。

    Learn more about the effects of stress and cortisol on the brain here:
    ::更多了解压力和皮质醇对大脑的影响: