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  • Bone 结构结构

    Roasted Bone Marrow
    ::烤骨骨髓

    Do you recognize the food item in the top left of this photo? It’s roasted bone marrow , still inside the bones, and it is considered a delicacy in some cuisines. Marrow is a type of tissue found inside many bones, including our own. It’s a soft tissue that, in adults, may be mostly fat. You’ll learn more about bone marrow and other tissues that make up bones when you read this concept.
    ::你是否认出这张照片左上角的食物项目?它还是骨头中的烤骨髓,在某些烹饪中被认为是美味的。 骨髓是一种在很多骨头中发现的组织,包括我们自己的组织。 在成年人中,软组织可能大多是脂肪。 当你阅读这个概念时,你会更多地了解骨髓和其他组织,它们构成骨骼。

    What Are Bones?
    ::什么是骨头?

    Bones are organs that consist primarily of bone tissue, also called osseous tissue. Bone tissue is a type of connective tissue consisting mainly of a collagen matrix that is mineralized with calcium and phosphorus crystals. The combination of flexible collagen and hard mineral crystals makes bone tissue hard, without making it brittle.
    ::骨骼是主要由骨骼组织构成的器官,也称为骨骼组织。骨骨组织是一种类型的连接组织,主要由用钙和磷晶体进行矿化的钴基质组成。软钴和硬矿物晶体的结合使骨骼组织硬化,而不会使骨骼组织易碎。

    Bone Anatomy
    ::骨骨解解剖

    There are several different types of tissues in bones, including two types of osseous tissues. Osseous tissues, in turn, consist of several different types of bone .
    ::骨骼组织有几种不同的组织,包括两种骨骼组织。 骨骼组织则由几种不同的骨骼组成。

    Types of Osseous Tissue
    ::骨质组织类型

    The two different types of osseous tissue are cortical bone tissue (also called hard or compact bone) and spongy bone tissue (also called cancellous or trabecular bone). Both are shown in the diagram of a typical bone in the figure .
    ::两种不同类型的骨骼组织是皮质骨组织(也称为硬骨或紧骨)和海绵骨组织(也称为断层骨或卷心骨)。

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    Bones are more complex on the inside than you would expect from their outer appearance.
    ::骨骼的内部比外表更复杂

    Cortical bone tissue forms the extremely hard outside layer of bones. Cortical bone tissue gives bone its smooth, dense, solid appearance. It accounts for about 80 percent of the total bone mass of the adult skeleton. Spongy bone tissue fills part or all of the interior of many bones. As its name suggests, spongy bone is porous like a sponge, containing an irregular network of spaces. This makes spongy bone much less dense than compact bone . Spongy bone has a greater surface area than cortical bone, but makes up only 20 percent of bone mass.
    ::骨质组织构成极硬的骨骼外层。 骨质组织给骨质带来光滑、 稠密、 坚固的外表。 它占成年骨骼总骨质的大约80% 。 海绵骨组织填充着许多骨骼的一部分或全部内部。 正如其名称所示, 海绵骨像海绵那样多孔, 包含不规则的空间网络。 这使得海绵骨密度比紧凑的骨质要小得多。 海绵骨的表面面积比皮质骨质大, 但只占骨质的20% 。

    Both cortical and spongy bone tissues have the same types of cells, but they differ in how the cells are arranged. The cells in cortical bone are arranged in multiple microscopic columns, whereas the cells in spongy bone are arranged in a looser, more open network. These cellular differences explain why cortical and spongy bone tissues have such different structures.
    ::皮质和海绵骨组织都有相同的细胞类型,但细胞的排列方式不同。 皮质骨中的细胞排列在多个微小柱子中,而海绵骨中的细胞排列在一个更加松散、更加开放的网络中。 这些细胞差异解释了毛质和海绵骨组织为何结构如此不同。

    Other Tissues in Bones
    ::骨头中的其他组织

    Besides cortical and spongy bone tissues, bones contain several other tissues, including and nerves . In addition, bones contain bone marrow and periosteum . You can see these tissues in the diagram above.
    ::除皮质和海绵骨组织外,骨头还含有其他几种组织,包括神经和神经。此外,骨头中含有骨髓和皮下骨髓。你可以在上面的图表中看到这些组织。

    • Bone marrow is a soft connective tissue found inside a cavity, called the marrow cavity. There are two types of marrow in adults — yellow bone marrow (which consists mostly of fat) and red bone marrow. All marrow is red in newborns, but by , much of the red marrow has changed to yellow marrow. In adults, red marrow is found mainly in the femur, ribs, vertebrae , and pelvic bones. Red bone marrow contains hematopoietic cells that give rise to red blood cells , white blood cells , and platelets in the process of hematopoiesis.
      ::骨髓是一种软性连接组织,存在于一个称为骨髓腔的洞穴中。在成年人中,骨髓分为两类:黄骨髓(主要由脂肪组成)和红骨髓。所有骨髓在新生儿中都是红的,但红骨大部分已经变成黄骨。在成年人中,红骨主要在股骨、肋骨、脊椎骨和骨骼骨骼中发现。红骨髓含有血细胞、白血细胞和血蛋白切片。
    • Periosteum is a tough, fibrous membrane that covers the outer surface of bones. It provides a protective covering for cortical bone tissue. It is also the source of new bone cells.
      ::皮下骨髓是一种坚硬的纤维膜,覆盖骨骼的外表面。它为皮层骨骼组织提供防护罩。它也是新骨细胞的来源。

    Bone Cells
    ::骨头单元格

    As shown in the figure , bone tissues are composed of four different types of bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and osteogenic cells.
    ::如图所示,骨骼组织由四种不同类型的骨细胞组成:骨骼细胞、骨骼细胞、骨骼细胞、骨骼细胞和骨骼细胞。

    • Osteoblasts are bone cells with a single that make and mineralize bone matrix . They make a mixture that is composed primarily of collagen and creates the organic part of the matrix. They also release calcium and phosphate ions that form mineral crystals within the matrix. In addition, they produce that play a role in the mineralization of the matrix.
      ::骨骼细胞是骨头细胞,单细胞制成和矿化骨质矩阵,它们制造的混合物主要由钴组成,并产生基质的有机部分,还释放出钙和磷离子,在基质中形成矿物晶体,此外,它们还产生在基质矿化中发挥作用的作用。
    • Osteocytes are mainly inactive bone cells that form from osteoblasts that have become entrapped within their own bone matrix. Osteocytes help regulate the formation and breakdown of bone tissue. They have multiple cell projections that are thought to be involved in with other bone cells.
      ::骨骼细胞主要是来自骨骼细胞的不活动骨细胞,这些骨骼细胞已经嵌入骨骼中。骨细胞有助于调节骨骼组织的形成和分解。它们有多个细胞预测,被认为与其他骨细胞有关。
    • Osteoclasts are bone cells with multiple nuclei that resorb bone tissue and break down bone. They dissolve the minerals in bone and release them into the .
      ::Osteoclasts是含有多个核的骨细胞,它们能恢复骨骼组织,断骨。它们将矿物质溶解到骨头中,释放到骨头中。
    • Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated stem cells. They are the only bone cells that can divide. When they do, they differentiate and develop into osteoblasts.
      ::骨质细胞是没有差异的干细胞。它们是唯一可以分裂的骨细胞。当它们分裂时,它们会区分并发展成骨质细胞。

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    Different types of bones cells have different functions.
    ::不同类型的骨骼细胞功能不同。

    Bone is very active tissue. It is constantly remodeled by the work of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts continuously make new bone, and osteoclasts keep breaking down bone. This allows for minor repair of bones, as well as of mineral ions in the blood. You can read more about remodeling of bone in the concept , Remodeling, and Repair .
    ::骨骼非常活跃的组织。 它不断被骨质球和骨质星体改造。 骨质星体不断制造新的骨骼, 骨质星体不断折断骨骼。 这样可以小修骨骼, 以及血液中的矿物离子。 您可以阅读更多关于骨质改造的概念、 改造和修复的更多信息 。

    Types of Bones
    ::骨头类型

    There are six types of bones in the , categorized based on their shape or location: long, short, flat, sesamoid, sutural, and irregular bones. You can see an example of each type of bone in the figure .
    ::根据形状或位置分类的骨骼有六种类型:长、短、平、结骨、结骨和非正常骨骼。您可以看到图中每种骨骼的示例。

    • Long bones are characterized by a shaft that is much longer than it is wide, and by a rounded head at each end of the shaft. Long bones are made mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of spongy bone and marrow. Most bones of the limbs — including those of the fingers and toes — are long bones.
      ::长骨头的特征是,长骨头的轴宽长得多,每端都有一个圆圆头,长骨头大多由紧骨制成,海绵骨和骨髓较少,大多数肢体的骨骼,包括手指和脚趾的骨骼,都是长骨头。
    • Short bones are roughly cube-shaped and have only a thin layer of cortical bone surrounding a spongy bone interior. The bones of the wrists and ankles are short bones.
      ::短骨大致是立方形,在海绵骨内部周围只有一层薄薄的皮骨,手腕和脚踝的骨头是短骨。
    • Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the sternum (breast bone).
      ::平板骨是薄的,一般是弯曲的,两层平行的紧凑骨层在一层海绵骨上做三明治。 头骨的多数骨头是平板骨,胸骨(胸骨)也是平板骨。
    • Sesamoid bones are embedded in tendons , the connective tissues that bind to bones. Sesamoid bones hold tendons farther away from , so the angle of the tendons is increased, thus increasing the leverage of muscles. The patella (knee cap) is an example of a sesamoid bone.
      ::骨嵌入了与骨骼相连的连接组织 -- -- 骨。 骨支撑着距离更远的骨,因此角角增加了,从而增加了肌肉的杠杆作用。 骨(膝盖)是骨的一个例子。
    • Sutural bones are very small bones located between the major bones of the skull, within the joints (sutures) between the larger bones. They are not always present.
      ::外壳骨骼是位于头骨主要骨骼之间、较大骨骼之间的关节(关节)内非常小的骨骼,但并不总是存在。
    • Irregular bones are those that do not fit into any of the above categories. They generally consist of thin layers of cortical bone surrounding a spongy bone interior. Their shapes are irregular and complicated. Examples of irregular bones include the vertebrae and the bones of the pelvis. 
      ::非正常骨骼与上述任何类别不相容,通常由海绵骨内部的薄层皮骨组成,其形状不固定且复杂,不正常的骨骼包括脊椎骨和骨盆骨。

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    This diagram shows an example of each of six types of bones classified by shape or location.
    ::本图显示按形状或位置分类的六种骨骼中的每一种。

    Feature: Reliable Sources
    ::特征:可靠来源

    Diseased or damaged bone marrow can be replaced by donated bone marrow cells, which help treat and often cure many life-threatening conditions, including leukemia, lymphoma, sickle cell anemia, and thalassemia. If a bone marrow transplant is successful, the new bone marrow will start making healthy blood cells and improve the patient’s condition.
    ::骨髓疾病或受损可以被捐赠的骨髓细胞所取代,骨髓细胞有助于治疗和治疗许多危及生命的条件,包括白血病、淋巴瘤、镰状细胞贫血和地中海贫血。 如果骨髓移植成功,新的骨髓将开始造出健康的血细胞并改善病人的状况。

    Learn more about bone marrow donation, and consider whether you might want to do it yourself. Find reliable sources to answer the following questions:
    ::更多了解骨髓捐赠的知识, 并考虑您是否愿意自己做。 找到可靠的来源回答下列问题 :

    1. How does one become a potential bone marrow donor?
      ::如何成为骨髓的潜在捐献者?
    2. Who can and who cannot donate bone marrow?
      ::谁可以,谁不能捐献骨髓?
    3. How is a bone marrow donation made?
      ::骨髓捐赠是怎么做的?
    4. What risks are there in donating bone marrow?
      ::捐献骨髓有什么风险?

    If you haven't yet read Chapter 8 in this Flex B ook, you can start your search for reliable information on bone marrow donation by reading the case study and case study conclusion  found there.
    ::如果您还没有读过这个FlexBook的第八章,您可以通过阅读案例研究和案例研究结论,开始寻找关于骨髓捐赠的可靠信息。

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Bones are organs that consist mainly of bone tissue (or osseous tissue). Osseous tissue is a type of connective tissue consisting of a collagen matrix that is mineralized with calcium and phosphorus crystals. The combination of flexible collagen and minerals makes bone hard, without making it brittle.
      ::骨骼是主要由骨骼组织(或骨骼组织)构成的器官,骨骼组织是一种连接组织,由用钙和磷晶体进行矿化的钴基体组成,软钴和矿物质相结合使骨骼硬化,而不会使其易碎。
    • There are two types of osseous tissues: cortical bone tissue and spongy bone tissue. Cortical bone tissue is smooth and dense. It forms the outer layer of bones. Spongy bone tissue is porous and light, and it is found inside many bones.
      ::骨骼组织分为两类:皮质骨骼组织和海绵骨组织;骨质骨质组织平滑而稠密;骨质骨质组织构成骨骼外层;海绵骨质组织多孔和光亮,许多骨骼中都发现了这种组织。
    • Besides osseous tissues, bones also contain nerves, blood vessels, bone marrow, and periosteum.
      ::除了骨骼组织之外,骨骼还含有神经、血管、骨髓和骨髓。
    • Bone tissue is composed of four different types of bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and osteogenic cells. Osteoblasts form new collagen matrix and mineralize it, osteoclasts break down bone, osteocytes regulate the formation and breakdown of bone, and osteogenic cells divide and differentiate to form new osteoblasts. Bone is a very active tissue, constantly being remodeled by the work of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
      ::骨骼组织由四种不同类型的骨细胞组成:骨质激素、骨质激素、骨质激素和骨质细胞。骨质激素形成新的科兰基质并进行矿物化,骨质激素分解骨质,骨质激素调节骨质形成和分解,骨质细胞分化并区分形成新的骨质激素。骨质是一种非常活跃的组织,不断通过骨质激素和骨质激素的工作进行改造。
    • There are six types of bones in the human body: long bones (such as the limb bones), short bones (such as the wrist bones), sesamoid bones (such as the patella), sutural bones in the skull, and irregular bones (such as the vertebrae).
      ::人体有六种骨骼:长骨骼(如肢体骨骼)、短骨骼(如手腕骨骼)、骨骼骨骼(如手腕骨)、骨骼骨骼(如板骨)、头骨和不固定骨骼(如脊椎骨)。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. Describe osseous tissue.
    ::1. 描述骨骼组织。

    2. Why are bones hard, but not brittle?
    ::2. 为什么骨头硬,而不是易碎?

    3. Compare and contrast the two main types of osseous tissue.
    ::3. 比较和比较两个主要类骨骼组织。

    4. What non-osseous tissues are found in bones?
    ::4. 在骨头中发现了什么非骨骼组织?

    5. List four types of bone cells and their functions.
    ::5. 列出四类骨细胞及其功能。

    6. Identify six types of bones. Give an example of each type.
    ::6. 识别六类骨头,举例说明每一种骨头。

    7. True or False:  Spongy bone tissue is another name for bone marrow.
    ::7. 真实或假:海绵骨组织是骨髓的另一个名称。

    8. True or False:  Periosteum covers osseous tissue.
    ::8. 真实或假: Periosteum覆盖骨骼组织。

    9. Compare and contrast yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow.
    ::9. 比较和对比黄骨髓和红骨髓。

    10. Which bone is mostly made of cortical bone tissue?
    ::10. 哪个骨骼主要由皮骨组织组成?

    a. pelvis
    ::a. 骨盆

    b. vertebrae
    ::b. 脊椎骨

    c. femur
    ::c. 股骨

    d. carpal
    ::d.

     

    11.  Which type of bone cell divides to produce new bone cells?  Where is this cell type located?
    ::11. 哪一类骨细胞分离产生新的骨细胞?这种细胞类型在哪里?

     

    12. Where do osteoblasts and osteocytes come from? How are they related to each other?
    ::12. 骨质激素和骨质素从何而来?它们彼此之间有何关联?

     

    13. Which type of bone is embedded in tendons?
    ::13. 哪种骨骼嵌在管子里?

     

    14. True or False:  Calcium is the only mineral in bones.
    ::14. 真实或假:钙是骨头中唯一的矿物。

    Explore More
    ::探索更多

    Watch this entertaining and fast-paced Crash Course video to further explore bone structure:
    ::观看这段娱乐性快节奏的崩溃课程视频,

    Check out this video to learn more about bone remodeling:
    ::校对:Portnoy 校对:Portnoy