Section outline

  • General

    Collapse all Expand all

  • 肠系统紊乱

    lesson content

    Awareness Ribbon
    ::意识带

    Awareness ribbons are symbols meant to show support or to raise consciousness for a cause. Different colors are associated with different issues, often relating to health problems. The first ribbon to gain familiarity for a health issue was the red ribbon for HIV/AID S , created in 1991. The pink ribbon for breast awareness is probably the best known today. Do you know what a green ribbon like the one pictured above represents? Among several other health problems, a green ribbon is meant to show support or raise awareness for disorders.
    ::认识带是旨在显示支持或提高事业意识的标志。不同颜色与不同的问题有关,往往与健康问题有关。最熟悉健康问题的丝带是1991年创建的艾滋病毒/艾滋病红丝带。乳腺癌意识粉色丝带可能是当今最广为人知的。你知道上面图一的绿色丝带代表着什么吗?除了其他几个健康问题外,绿色丝带旨在显示对精神紊乱的支持或提高这方面的意识。

    Disorders of the Kidneys
    ::肾脏病症

    The kidneys play such vital roles in eliminating wastes and toxins — and in maintaining body-wide — that disorders of the kidneys may be life threatening. Gradual loss of normal kidney function commonly occurs with a number of disorders, including mellitus and high . Other disorders of the kidneys are caused by faulty inherited genes . Loss of kidney function may eventually progress to kidney failure .
    ::肾脏在消除废物和毒素方面发挥着至关重要的作用,在保持整个身体方面,肾脏的紊乱可能危及生命,正常肾功能的逐渐丧失通常会因若干种疾病而发生,包括宫颈和高肾功能的逐渐丧失,其他肾脏的紊乱是由遗传基因缺陷造成的,肾功能的丧失可能最终导致肾衰竭。

    Diabetic Nephropathy
    ::糖尿病神经病

    Diabetic nephropathy is a progressive kidney disease caused by damage to the capillaries in the glomeruli of the kidneys, due to long-standing diabetes mellitus (see figure ). It is not fully understood how diabetes leads to damage of glomerular capillaries, but it is thought that high levels of glucose in the are involved. In people with diabetes, nephropathy is more likely if blood glucose is poorly controlled. Having high blood pressure, a history of cigarette smoking, and a family history of kidney problems are additional risk factors. Diabetic nephropathy often has no symptoms at first. In fact, it may take up to a decade after kidney damage begins for symptoms to appear. When they do appear, they typically include severe tiredness, headaches, nausea, frequent urination , and itchy skin.
    ::长期糖尿病(见图)导致肾脏球状膜损伤,导致肾脏毛细膜损伤,糖尿病肾脏病是一种累进性肾病(累进性肾病),由于长期糖尿病(见图 ) , 目前还不能完全理解糖尿病如何导致球状心血管损伤,但据认为,其中涉及到高浓度的葡萄糖。在糖尿病患者中,如果血液葡萄糖控制不力,肾病就更可能发生。高血压、吸烟史和家庭肾病史是额外的风险因素。 糖尿病肾脏病一开始往往没有症状。 事实上,在肾脏损伤开始出现症状后,可能要花上10年的时间。 当出现症状时,通常包括严重疲劳、头痛、恶心、经常尿液和皮肤痒等。

    lesson content

    Diabetic nephropathy is characterized by damage to the capillaries in the glomeruli of the kidneys, represented by the lower of the two inset diagrams.
    ::糖尿病肾病的特点是肾脏球状体的毛细膜受损,表现为两张内嵌图的下方。

    are large molecules that are usually not filtered out of blood in the glomeruli. When the glomerular capillaries are damaged, it allows proteins (such as albumin) to leak into the filtrate from the blood. As a result, albumin ends up being excreted in the urine . Finding a high level of albumin in the urine is one indicator of diabetic nephropathy and helps to diagnose the disorder. Drugs may be prescribed to reduce protein levels in the urine. Controlling high blood sugar levels and hypertension (high blood pressure) is also important to help slow kidney damage, as is a reduction of sodium intake.
    ::球状毛细胞被损坏时,它允许蛋白质(如蛋白质)从血液中渗入过滤器。结果,蛋白质最终在尿液中排出。在尿液中找到高浓度的蛋白质是糖尿病肾脏病的一个指标,有助于诊断疾病。可以开药减少尿液中的蛋白质含量。控制高血糖和高血压(高血压)对于减轻肾脏损伤也很重要,减少钠摄入也同样重要。

    Polycystic Kidney Disease
    ::多细胞肾脏疾病

    Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is a in which multiple abnormal cysts develop and grow in the kidneys. The photo shows a pair of kidneys that are riddled with cysts from PKD. In people who inherit PKD, the cysts may start to form at any point in life, from through . Typically, both kidneys are affected. Symptoms of the disorder may include high blood pressure, headaches, abdominal pain, blood in the urine, and excessive urination.
    ::肾脏综合症(PKD)是肾脏中多种异常细胞发芽和生长的一种情况,照片显示一对肾脏里充满了PKD的细胞。在继承PKD的人中,囊囊囊可能开始在生命的任何时刻形成,从到现在。通常两种肾脏都会受到影响。这种疾病的症状可能包括高血压、头痛、腹部疼痛、尿液中的血液和过量的尿道。

    In polycystic kidney disease, the kidneys are injured by the formation of multiple cysts, which may grow to be quite large.
    ::在多细胞肾病中,肾脏因多细胞细胞的形成而受伤,这些细胞可能长得相当大。

    There are two types of PKD. The more common type is caused by an autosomal dominant allele , and the less common type is caused by an autosomal recessive allele . Both types together make PKD one of the most common hereditary diseases in the United States, affecting more than half a million people. There is little or no difference in the rate of occurrence of PKD between genders or ethnic groups. Other than a kidney transplant, there is no known cure for this disease.
    ::有两种PKD类型。 最常见的类型是由自动蛋白占支配地位的异性导致的,而较不常见的类型则是由自动蛋白沉滞性异性导致的。这两种类型共同将PKD列为美国最常见的遗传疾病之一,影响到50多万人。在性别或种族群体之间,PKD的发生率几乎没有或没有差别。除肾移植外,没有已知的治疗这种疾病的治疗方法。

    Kidney Failure
    ::肾衰竭

    Both diabetic nephropathy and PKD may lead to kidney (or renal) failure (classified as end-stage kidney disease), in which the kidneys are no longer able to adequately filter metabolic wastes from the blood. Long-ter m , uncontrolled high blood pressure is another common cause of kidney failure. Symptoms of kidney failure may include nausea, more or less frequent urination, blood in the urine, muscle cramps, anemia, swelling of the extremities, and shortness of breath due to the accumulation of fluid in the lungs . If kidney function drops below the level needed to sustain life, then the only treatment option is kidney transplantation or some means of artificial filtration of the blood, such as by hemodialysis.
    ::糖尿病肾病和PKD都可能导致肾(或肾)衰竭(被归类为最终肾病),肾不再能够从血液中适当过滤代谢废物;长期、不受控制的高血压是肾衰竭的另一个常见原因;肾衰竭的症状可能包括恶心、或多或少频繁的尿液、尿液中的血液、肌肉抽筋、贫血、腹部肿胀和肺部积积液造成的呼吸短促;如果肾功能下降到维持生命所需的水平以下,那么唯一的治疗选择就是肾移植或血液的某种人工过滤手段,例如血解。

    Hemodialysis is a medical procedure in which blood is filtered externally through a machine. You can see how it works in the simplified diagram . During dialysis , waste products (such as urea) — along with  excess — are removed from the patient’s blood before the blood is returned to the patient. Hemodialysis is typically done on an outpatient basis in a hospital or special dialysis clinic. Less frequently, it is done in the patient’s home. Depending on the patient’s size, among other factors, the blood is filtered for three to four hours roughly three times a week. Because the treatment is needed so frequently, hemodialysis is one of the most common procedures performed in U.S. hospitals.
    ::透析是一种医疗程序,血液通过机器从外部过滤。您可以从简化的图表中看到它是如何工作的。在透析过程中,在将血液还给病人之前,废物(如尿素)(以及过量)从病人的血液中取出。热解通常在医院或特别透析诊所进行门诊治疗,较少的是在病人家中进行。根据病人的体积,除其他因素外,血液被过滤3至4小时,大约每周3次。由于治疗非常频繁,因此美国医院最常用的方法之一是进行热解。

    lesson content

    This simple diagram shows the general process by which blood is filtered externally in the process of hemodialysis.
    ::这个简单的图表显示了血液在血液透析过程中从外部过滤的一般过程。

    Kidney Stones
    ::肾石

    A kidney stone , also known as a renal calculus, is a solid crystal that forms in a kidney from minerals in urine (see figure ). The majority of kidney stones consist of crystals of calcium salts. Kidney stones typically leave the body in the urine stream. A small stone may go undetected, because it can pass through the ureters and other urinary tract organs without causing symptoms. A larger stone may cause pain when it passes through the urinary tract. If a kidney stone grows large enough, it may block the ureter . Blockage of a ureter may cause a decrease in kidney function and damage to the kidney.
    ::肾结石,又称肾结石,是用尿中的矿物(见图)在肾脏中形成的固体晶体,大部分肾结石由钙盐的结晶组成。肾结石通常将尸体留在尿流中。小石块可能未被发现,因为它可以通过尿管和其他尿道器官,而不会造成症状。更大的石块在通过尿道时可能造成疼痛。如果肾结石长得足够大,它可能堵住尿管。尿管的堵塞可能会降低肾功能,并损害肾脏。

    lesson content

    Kidney stones form in the kidney and may grow large enough to block the ureter.
    ::肾结石形成肾脏 可能长得足以堵住尿管

    A kidney stone that causes pain is generally treated with pain medication until it passes through the urinary tract. A stone that causes a blockage may be treated with lithotripsy. This is a medical procedure in which high-intensity ultrasound pulses are applied externally to cause fragmentation of the stone into pieces small enough to pass easily through the urinary tract. Although lithotripsy is noninvasive, it can cause damage to the kidneys. An alternative treatment for a stone that blocks urine flow is to insert a stent into the ureter to expand it and allow both urine and the stone to pass. In some cases, surgery may be required to physically remove a large stone from the ureter.
    ::造成疼痛的肾脏石一般用止痛药物治疗,直到它通过尿道; 造成阻塞的石块可以用利他分解; 这是一种医疗程序,从外部应用高强度超声波脉冲,将石块碎成小块,容易通过尿道; 尽管石块不穿透,但可能会对肾脏造成损害; 对阻塞尿流的石块的一种替代治疗是将刺片插入尿管,以扩大尿道,允许尿道和石块通过; 在某些情况下,可能需要进行手术,从尿道中切除大块石块。

    A combination of lifestyle and genetic factors seem to predispose certain people to develop kidneys stones. Risk factors include high consumption of cola soft drinks, eating a diet high in protein, being overweight, and not drinking enough fluids. Preventive measures are obvious. They include limiting cola consumption, eating less animal protein, losing weight, and increasing fluid intake.
    ::各种生活方式和遗传因素的结合似乎促使某些人开发肾结石,风险因素包括高消费可乐软饮料、高食高食蛋白质、超重和不喝足够的液体。 预防措施显而易见,包括限制可乐消费、少食动物蛋白、减肥和增加液体摄入。

    Other Urinary System Disorders
    ::其他内脏系统疾病

    Although disorders of the kidneys are generally the most serious disorders, problems that affect other organs of the urinary tract are generally more common. They include bladder infections and urinary incontinence.
    ::虽然肾脏紊乱一般是最严重的紊乱,但影响尿道其他器官的问题通常更为常见,包括膀胱感染和尿不禁。

    Bladder Infection
    ::刀型感染

    A bladder infection , also called cystitis, is a very common type of urinary tract infection in which the urinary bladder becomes infected by (typically Escherichia coli ), and rarely by . Symptoms of bladder infections may include pain with urination, frequent urination, and feeling the need to urinate despite having an empty bladder. In some cases, there may be blood in the urine. A much less common type of urinary tract infection is pyelonephritis , in which the kidney becomes infected. If a kidney infection occurs, it is generally because of an untreated bladder infection. Bladder infections are treated mainly with antibiotics .
    ::膀胱感染,又称囊炎,是一种非常常见的尿道感染,尿囊感染通常由(典型的雌性大肠杆菌)感染,而且很少由(乙型肝炎)感染。 膀胱感染的症状可能包括尿痛、频繁的尿道,以及感到尽管膀胱空空,但仍需要小便。在有些情况中,尿囊中可能有血迹。尿囊感染的常见类型是肾脏感染,而肾脏感染则由肾脏感染。如果肾脏感染发生,一般是因为未治疗的膀胱感染。乳头感染主要用抗生素治疗。

    Risk factors for urinary bladder infections include sexual intercourse (especially when spermicide or a diaphragm , as shown , is used for contraception), diabetes, obesity , and — most notably  — female sex. Bladder infections are four times more common in women than in men. For women,  they are the most common type of bacterial infections, and as many as one in ten women have a bladder infection in any given year. Female anatomy explains the sex difference in the incidence of bladder infections. The urethra is much shorter and closer to the anus in females than in males, so contamination of the urethra and then the bladder with GI tract bacteria is more likely in females than in males. Once the bacteria reach the bladder, they can attach to the bladder wall and form a biofilm that resists the body’s immune response .
    ::尿囊感染的风险因素包括性交(特别是如所示,在使用杀精剂或隔膜进行避孕时)、糖尿病、肥胖症,以及——最明显的是——女性性行为。在女性中,刀形感染是男性的四倍。对于女性来说,刀形感染是最常见的细菌感染类型,在任何一年中,多达十分之一的妇女都会感染膀胱感染。女性解剖解释膀胱感染的性别差别。尿道与女性的肛门相比短得多,更接近男性的肛门,因此女性更容易感染尿道,然后膀胱感染吉氏菌菌。一旦细菌感染到膀胱,她们可以附在膀胱的墙上,形成一种能抵抗身体免疫反应的生物纤维。

    Using a diaphragm like this one as a barrier method of birth control may increase the risk of a woman developing a bladder infection following sexual intercourse.
    ::使用这种隔膜作为控制生育的障碍方法,可能会增加妇女性交后膀胱感染的风险。

    Urinary Incontinence
    ::尿室失禁

    Urinary incontinence is a chronic problem of uncontrolled leakage of urine. It is very common, especially at older ages, and especially in women. Sometimes, urinary incontinence is a sign of another health problem, such as diabetes or obesity. Regardless of the underlying cause, the symptoms of urinary incontinence alone may have a large impact on quality of life, frequently causing inconvenience, embarrassment, and distress.
    ::尿尿失禁是尿液无节制渗漏的一个长期问题,这非常普遍,特别是在老年人,尤其是妇女中,有时尿不禁是糖尿病或肥胖等另一个健康问题的征兆。 无论根本原因为何,尿不禁的症状本身可能对生活质量产生巨大影响,经常造成不便、尴尬和痛苦。

    In men, urinary incontinence is most commonly caused by an enlarged prostate gland or treatment for prostate cancer. In women, there are two common types of urinary incontinence with different causes: stress incontinence and urge incontinence.
    ::在男性中,尿盲最常见的原因是前列腺扩大或前列腺癌治疗。 在女性中,有两种常见的尿盲,原因不同:压力失禁和催促失禁。

    • Stress urinary incontinence is caused by loss of support of the urethra, usually due to stretching of pelvic floor during childbirth. It is characterized by leakage of small amounts of urine with activities that increase abdominal pressure, such as coughing, sneezing, or lifting. Treatment of stress urinary incontinence may include Kegel exercises to strengthen the pelvic muscles. More serious cases may call for surgery to improve support for the bladder.
      ::尿道疏松症是尿道疏松症造成的,通常由于在分娩期间骨盆层拉伸而导致尿尿疏漏,其特点是小量的尿液渗漏,活动增加了腹部压力,如咳嗽、打喷嚏或抬起;治疗紧张的尿不禁可能包括Kegel运动,以加强骨盆肌肉;更严重的病例可能要求手术,以改善对膀胱的支持。
    • Urge urinary incontinence (commonly called “overactive bladder”) is caused by uncontrolled contractions of the detrusor muscle in the wall of the bladder. This causes the bladder to empty unexpectedly. Urge incontinence is characterized by leakage of large amounts of urine in association with insufficient warning to get to the bathroom in time. Treatment of urge incontinence may include taking a medication to relax the detrusor muscle.
      ::催促尿不自禁(通常称为“过度行动膀胱”)是由膀胱墙内干扰性肌肉的无节制收缩造成的,这导致膀胱突然空出。催促不禁的特点是大量尿液泄漏,同时没有足够警告及时到达浴室。不自禁的治疗可能包括服药放松干扰性肌肉。

    Feature: My Human Body
    ::特质:我的人体

    You probably have had to “donate” a urine specimen for analysis in conjunction with a medical visit. A thorough medical exam often includes clinical tests for urine. Understanding what your urine can  reveal about your health may help you appreciate the need for such tests.
    ::你可能不得不“捐赠”尿样,以便结合医疗检查进行分析。 彻底的体检通常包括尿液临床检测。 了解尿液对身体健康的影响可能会帮助你理解进行这种检测的必要性。

    The most common urine test is called urinalysis . In a routine urinalysis, a urine sample may be analyzed by sight and smell , and with simple urine test strips. If a particular disorder is suspected, urinalysis may be more extensive. T he urine may be analyzed with specific tests or viewed under a to identify abnormal substances in the urine. If a bacterial infection is suspected, a sample of urine may be cultured in the lab to see if it grows bacteria, and which type of bacteria grow. Knowing the type of bacteria is important for deciding which class of antibiotics is likely to be most effective in treating the infection.
    ::最常见的尿检称为尿解,在例行的尿解中,尿样可以通过目光和嗅觉分析,并用简单的尿检带分析;如果怀疑存在某种病症,尿解的范围可能更广;尿液可以通过具体测试分析,或者在一种物质下观察,以辨别尿液中的异常物质;如果怀疑存在细菌感染,可以在实验室中培养尿样,以确定尿是否生长细菌,以及哪种细菌生长;了解细菌类型对于决定哪类抗生素在治疗感染方面可能最为有效十分重要。

    The color and clarity of urine may be obvious first indicators of disorders or other abnormalities. Normal urine is yellow to amber in color, and looks clear. If urine is nearly colorless, it could be a sign of excessive fluid intake, or it might be a sign of diabetes. Very dark urine may indicate dehydration, but it could also be caused by taking certain medications or ingesting some other substances. If urine has a reddish tinge, it is often a sign of blood in the urine, which could be due to a urinary tract infection, kidney stone, or even cancer. If urine appears cloudy instead of clear, it could be due to white blood cells in the urine, which may be another sign of a urinary tract infection.
    ::尿液的颜色和清晰度可能明显地是紊乱或其他异常现象的第一指标。 正常尿是黄色的,在颜色上是黄色的,看起来是清晰的。 如果尿液几乎没有颜色,它可能是过量的液体摄入的迹象,或者可能是糖尿病的征兆。 非常暗的尿可能表示脱水,但也可能是由于服用某些药物或摄入某些其他物质造成的。如果尿液有红化的刺痛,它经常是尿液中血液的征兆,这可能是尿道感染、肾脏石、甚至癌症造成的。 如果尿液看起来阴云,而不是明显,它可能是尿液中的白血细胞造成的,这可能是尿道感染的另一个迹象。

    If it is very diluted, normal urine may have virtually no odor. It will have a stronger odor if it is concentrated. Brief changes in the normal odor of urine often occur due to the ingestion of certain foods or medications. A fter eating asparagus, for example, urine may have a peculiar and distinctive odor for several hours. More significant is urine that has a sweet smell, because this may indicate sugar in the urine, which is a sign of diabetes.
    ::如果尿被稀释了,通常的尿可能几乎没有气味,如果集中,会有更浓的气味。尿的正常气味经常由于摄入某些食物或药物而发生短暂的改变。例如,在食用麻黄碱之后,尿可能在几个小时内有一种独特和独特的气味。更严重的是尿有甜味,因为这可能表明尿中的糖,这是糖尿病的征兆。

    Urine test strips, much like the familiar litmus test strips used to detect in chemistry lab, are used to identify abnormal levels of certain components in the urine. For example, urine test strips can detect and quantify the presence of nitrites in urine, which is usually a sign of infection with certain types of bacteria. Urine test strips can also be used to identify proteins such as albumin in urine, which may be a sign of a kidney infection or of kidney failure. Levels of sodium in urine can also be measured with test strips, and higher-than-normal levels may be another indication of kidney failure. In addition, test strips can identify and quantify the presence of white blood cells and blood in a urine specimen, both of which are likely to be a sign of a urinary tract infection or some other urinary system disorder.
    ::尿液测试条与化学实验室中用来检测的熟悉的立柱试验条非常相似,用来确定尿液中某些成分的异常水平,例如,尿液测试条可以检测和量化尿液中是否存在亚硝酸盐,这通常是某种细菌感染的迹象,尿液测试条也可以用来识别尿液中的蛋白质,如尿液中的蛋白质,这可能是肾脏感染或肾衰竭的迹象,尿液中的钠水平也可以用测试条测量,高于正常水平可能是肾衰竭的另一种迹象,此外,测试条可以识别和量化尿样中存在白血细胞和血迹,两者都可能是尿道感染或其他尿系统紊乱的迹象。

    Besides the use of urine test strips, other simple urine tests that are often performed include Benedict’s test, which is a test for the presence and quantity of glucose in urine. If the level is high, it likely indicates diabetes. The test is so simple that it may even be done by the patient  at  home to monitor how well sugar levels are being controlled. Testing for some other substances in urine requires the patient to collect urine over a 24-hour period. This is the case when testing for the adrenal cortisol. When urine cortisol levels are higher than normal, it may indicate Cushing’s syndrome. When the levels are lower than normal, it may indicate Addison’s disease.
    ::除了使用尿液测试条之外,通常进行的其他简单的尿液测试还包括本尼迪克特的测试,这是对尿液中葡萄糖的存在和数量的测试。如果浓度高,则可能表明糖尿病。测试非常简单,甚至可以由家里的病人来监测糖含量的控制情况。对尿液中某些其他物质的测试要求病人在24小时内收集尿液。在肾上腺皮质素的测试中,情况就是这样。当尿皮质质素水平高于正常水平时,它可能表明库辛综合症。当浓度低于正常水平时,它可能表明艾迪森的疾病。

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Diabetic nephropathy is a progressive kidney disease caused by damage to the capillaries in the glomeruli of the kidneys due to long-standing diabetes mellitus. Years of capillary damage may occur before symptoms first appear.
      ::长期糖尿病导致肾脏球状膜的毛细膜损伤,导致肾脏肾脏的糖尿病肾脏病是一种累进性肾病,在症状出现之前可能发生多年的毛虫损伤。
    • Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is a genetic disorder (autosomal dominant or recessive) in which multiple abnormal cysts grow in the kidneys.
      ::多元肾脏疾病是一种遗传病(浮游主要或休眠症),肾脏中多发异常囊肿。
    • Diabetic nephropathy, PKD, or chronic hypertension may lead to kidney failure, in which the kidneys are no longer able to adequately filter metabolic wastes from the blood. Kidneys may fail to such a degree that kidney transplantation or repeated, frequent hemodialysis is needed to support life. In hemodialysis, the patient’s blood is filtered artificially through a machine, and then returned to the patient’s circulation.
      ::肾脏无法从血液中充分过滤代谢废物,肾脏可能因此衰竭。 肾脏可能无法达到肾移植或重复、频繁的血液透析以维持生命的程度。 在血液透析中,病人的血液通过机器人工过滤,然后返回到病人的循环中。
    • A kidney stone is a solid crystal that forms in a kidney from minerals in urine. A small stone may pass undetected through the ureters and the rest of the urinary tract. A larger stone may cause pain when it passes or be too large to pass, causing blockage of a ureter. Large kidney stones may be shattered with high-intensity ultrasound into pieces small enough to pass through the urinary tract, or they may be removed surgically.
      ::肾脏石是用尿中的矿物从肾脏中形成的固体晶体,小石块可能通过尿管和尿道的其余部分而未被发现,大石块在通过或太大而不能通过时可能造成疼痛,造成尿管堵塞,大肾石可能用高强度超声波粉碎,碎成小块,足以通过尿道,或手术取出。
    • A bladder infection is generally caused by bacteria that reach the bladder from the GI tract and multiply. Bladder infections are much more common in females than males, because the female urethra is much shorter and closer to the anus. Treatment generally includes antibiotic drugs.
      ::膀胱感染一般是由从GI道和倍增到达膀胱的细菌造成的,在女性中,刀型感染比男性更常见,因为女性尿道短得多,更接近肛门,治疗一般包括抗生素药物。
    • Urinary incontinence is a chronic problem of uncontrolled leakage of urine. It is very common, especially at older ages and in women. In men, urinary incontinence is usually caused by an enlarged prostate gland. In women, it is usually caused by stretching of pelvic floor muscles during childbirth (stress incontinence) or by an “overactive bladder” that empties without warning (urge incontinence).
      ::尿尿失禁是尿液无节制渗漏的一个长期问题,特别是在老年和女性中非常常见,在男性中,尿不禁通常是由前列腺扩大造成的,在女性中,通常是由分娩期间骨盆骨骼肌肉拉伸(失禁症)或无预警(失禁狂)的“过活膀胱”造成的。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. What is diabetic nephropathy? What causes it?
    ::1. 什么是糖尿病肾病?是什么原因?

    2. Describe polycystic kidney disease (PKD).
    ::2. 描述多细胞肾病(PKD)。

    3. Define kidney failure.
    ::3. 确定肾衰竭的定义。

    4. W hen kidney function drops below the level needed to sustain life, w hat are potential treatments for kidney failure?
    ::4. 当肾功能下降到维持生命所需的水平以下时,什么是肾衰竭的潜在治疗方法?

    5. Describe hemodialysis.
    ::5. 描述血液透析。

    6. What are kidney stones?
    ::6. 什么是肾结石?

    7. How may a large kidney stone be removed from the body?
    ::7. 如何从身体中取出大块肾石?

    8. How are bladder infections usually treated?
    ::8. 膀胱感染通常如何治疗?

    9. Why are bladder infections much more common in females than in males?
    ::9. 为什么膀胱感染在女性中比男性更常见?

    10. Define urinary incontinence.
    ::10. 界定尿不禁症。

    11. Compare and contrast stress incontinence and urge incontinence.
    ::11. 比较和对比不自闭压力和催促不自闭。

    12. Why is the presence of a protein (such as albumin) in the urine a cause for concern?
    ::12. 为什么尿液中存在蛋白质(例如蛋白质)值得关注?

    13. Patients undergoing hemodialysis usually have to do this procedure a few times a week. Why does it need  to be done so frequently?
    ::13. 接受透析的病人通常每周要做几次这种手术,为什么需要经常做这种手术?

    14, Which of the following is considered a genetic disorder?
    ::14,以下哪一种被认为是遗传疾病?

    a. polycystic kidney disease
    ::a. 多细胞肾脏疾病

    b. diabetic nephropathy
    ::b. 糖尿病肾病

    c. kidney failure
    ::c. 肾衰竭

    d. urinary incontinence
    ::d. 尿尿失禁

     

    15. What is the most common cause of a kidney infection?
    ::15. 肾脏感染的最常见原因是什么?

    Explore More
    ::探索更多

    Kegel exercises can strengthen the muscles of the pelvic floor and help many cases of urinary incontinence. You can learn more by watching this video:
    ::Kegel练习可以强化骨盆下层的肌肉,

    Urinary tract infections can be very painful. Learn more about their symptoms, causes, complications, and treatments here:
    ::尿道感染可能非常痛苦。 更多了解他们的症状、原因、并发症和治疗方法: