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  • 案例研究结论:捍卫国防

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    Case Study Conclusion: Defending Your Defenses
    ::案例研究结论:捍卫国防

    This woman is participating in a bike ride to raise funds for leukemia and lymphoma research. Leukemia and lymphoma are blood cancers. About every three minutes, one person in the U.S. is diagnosed with blood cancer. Lymphoma is the most common type of blood cancer. As a lymphoma patient, Brian, who you learned about in the beginning of this chapter, may eventually benefit from research funded by a bike ride like this one.  
    ::这名妇女正在参加自行车骑车,为白血病和淋巴瘤研究筹集资金。白血病和淋巴瘤是血癌。大约每三分钟就有一人被诊断患有血癌。淋巴瘤是最常见的血癌类型。作为淋巴瘤患者,在本章开始阶段你所了解的布莱恩,最终可能受益于由这样一辆自行车资助的研究。

    What type of blood cell is affected in lymphoma? As the name implies, lymphoma is a cancer that affects lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell. As you have learned in this chapter, there are different types of lymphocytes, including the B and T cells of the adaptive immune system. Different types of lymphoma affect different types of lymphocytes in different ways. It is important to correctly identify the type of lymphoma, so that patients can be treated appropriately.  
    ::淋巴瘤是影响淋巴细胞的一种癌症,而淋巴细胞是一种白血细胞。正如你在本章中所学到的,有不同类型的淋巴细胞,包括适应性免疫系统的B和T细胞。不同种类的淋巴细胞以不同的方式影响不同种类的淋巴细胞。必须正确确定淋巴细胞的类型,以便病人得到适当的治疗。

    You may recall that one of Brian’s symptoms was a swollen lymph node, and he was diagnosed with lymphoma after a biopsy of that lymph node. Swollen lymph nodes are a common symptom of lymphoma. As you have learned, lymph nodes are distributed throughout the body along lymphatic vessels, as part of the lymphatic system. The lymph nodes filter lymph and store lymphocytes. Therefore, they play an important role in fighting infections. Because of this, they will often swell in response to an infection. In Brian’s case, the swelling and other symptoms did not improve after several weeks and a course of antibiotics, which caused Dr. Hayes to suspect lymphoma instead. The biopsy showed that Brian did indeed have cancerous lymphocytes in his lymph nodes.
    ::你可能记得,布莱恩的症状之一是淋巴结肿,在淋巴结的活性检查后,他被诊断为淋巴结。淋巴结是淋巴结的常见症状。 淋巴结肿是淋巴结的常见症状。 正如你所知道的,淋巴结作为淋巴系统的一部分,分布在身体各处淋巴结血管。淋巴结过滤淋巴结和储存淋巴细胞。因此,淋巴结在防治感染方面起着重要作用。因此,淋巴结在应对感染方面往往会膨胀。 在Brian的案例中,几周后,肿胀和其他症状在抗生素过程中没有好转,导致Hayes博士怀疑淋巴瘤。 生物调查表明,Brian在淋巴结中确实有癌症性淋巴细胞。

    But which type of lymphocytes were affected? Lymphoma most commonly affects B or T lymphocytes. The two major types of lymphoma are called Hodgkin (HL) or non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). NHL is more common than HL. There are more than 70 thousand cases of NHL diagnosed in the U.S. each year, compared to about eight thousand  for HL. While HL is one distinct type of lymphoma, NHL has about 60 different subtypes, depending on which specific cells are affected and how.
    ::但哪类淋巴细胞受到影响? 淋巴瘤最常影响B类或T类淋巴细胞。两大类淋巴瘤称为Hodgkin(HL)或非Hodgkin淋巴瘤(NHL)。 NHL比HL更为常见。 美国每年诊断出超过7万例NHL病例,而HL为大约8 000例。虽然HL是一种截然不同的淋巴瘤,但NHL有大约60种不同的子类型,这取决于具体细胞受到何种影响以及如何受到影响。

    Brian was diagnosed with a type of NHL called diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) — the most common type of NHL. This type of lymphoma affects B cells and causes them to appear large under the microscope. In addition to Brian’s symptoms of fatigue, swollen lymph nodes, loss of appetite, and weight loss, common symptoms of this type of lymphoma include fever and night sweats. It is an aggressive and fast-growing type of lymphoma that is fatal if not treated. T he good news is that with early detection and proper treatment, about 70 percent of patients with DLBCL can be cured.
    ::布赖恩被诊断为一种名为扩散型大B细胞淋巴瘤(DLBCL)的NHL,这是最常见的NHL类型。 这种淋巴瘤会影响B细胞,并导致细胞在显微镜下出现。 除了布赖恩的疲劳症状、淋巴结肿胀、食欲丧失和体重丧失之外,这种淋巴瘤的常见症状包括发烧和夜间汗水。 这种具有攻击性且快速增长的淋巴瘤如果得不到治疗,就会致命。 好消息是,如果早期发现和适当治疗,大约70%的DLBCL病人可以治愈。

    How do physicians determine the specific type of lymphoma? Tissue obtained from a biopsy can be examined under a microscope to observe physical changes (such as abnormal cell size or shape) that are characteristic of a particular subtype of lymphoma. Additionally, tests can be performed on the tissue to determine which cell-surface antigens are present. Recall that antigens are molecules that bind to specific antibodies. Antibodies can be produced in the laboratory and labeled with compounds that can be identified by their color under a microscope. When these antibodies are applied to a tissue sample, this color will appear wherever the antigen is present, because it binds to the antibody. T his technique was used in the photomicrograph to identify the presence of a cell-surface antigen (shown as reddish-brown) in a sample of skin cells. This technique, called immunohistochemistry, is also commonly used to identify antigens in tissue samples from lymphoma patients.    
    ::医生如何确定淋巴瘤的具体类型?从生物检查中获得的组织可以在显微镜下进行检查,以观察作为淋巴瘤特定亚型特征的物理变化(如异常细胞大小或形状);此外,可以在组织上进行测试,以确定存在哪些细胞表面抗原;回顾抗原是与特定抗体结合的分子;抗体可以在实验室中生产,并用其颜色在显微镜下可以识别的化合物进行标签;当这些抗体被应用到组织样本时,这种颜色将出现在抗原存在的地方,因为它与抗体有关。在摄影摄影中,这种技术被用来确定皮肤细胞细胞样本中是否存在细胞表面抗原(红褐色),这种叫作免疫生物学化学学的技术也通常用于识别淋巴瘤病人组织样本中的抗原。

     

    Why would identifying cell-surface antigens be important in diagnosing and treating lymphoma? As you have learned, the immune system uses antigens present on the surface of cells or pathogens to distinguish between self and non-self, and to launch adaptive immune responses. Cells that become cancerous often change their cell-surface antigens. This is one way that the immune system can identify and destroy them. Also, different cell types in the body can sometimes be identified by the presence of specific cell-surface antigens. Knowing the types of cell-surface antigens present in a tissue sample can help physicians identify which cells are cancerous, and possibly the specific subtype of cancer. Knowing this information can be helpful in choosing more tailored and effective treatments.
    ::为何辨别细胞表面抗原在诊断和治疗淋巴瘤方面很重要?如你所知,免疫系统使用细胞或病原体表面的抗原来区分自我和非自我,并启动适应性免疫反应。成为癌症的细胞往往会改变细胞表面抗原。这是免疫系统能够识别和销毁它们的一种方式。此外,通过特定细胞表面抗原的存在,有时可以辨别体内的不同细胞类型。了解组织样本中存在的细胞表面抗原的类型,可以帮助医生识别哪些细胞是癌症,也可能是特定子癌症类型。了解这些信息有助于选择更有针对性的、更有效的治疗方法。

    O ne treatment for NHL is, in fact, the use of medications made from antibodies that bind to cell-surface antigens present on cells affected by the specific subtype of NHL. This is called immunotherapy. These drugs can directly bind to and kill the cancerous cells. For patients with DLBCL like Brian, immunotherapy is often used in conjunction with chemotherapy and radiation as a course of treatment. Although Brian has a difficult road ahead, he and his medical team are optimistic that — given the high success rate when DLBCL is caught and treated early — he may be cured. More research into how the immune system functions may lead to even better treatments for lymphoma — and other types of cancers — in the future.
    ::NHL的治疗方法之一是使用抗体的药物,这些抗体与受NHL特定子型影响的细胞上存在的细胞表面抗原相连。这称为免疫疗法,这些药物可以直接与癌症细胞结合并杀死这些细胞。对像Brian这样的DLBCL病人来说,免疫疗法经常与化疗和辐射结合,作为治疗过程。虽然Brian前面的道路很困难,但他和他的医疗团队乐观地认为,鉴于DLBCL被及早捕获和治疗的成功率很高,他可以治愈。对免疫系统功能如何在未来导致对淋巴瘤(淋巴瘤)和其他类型癌症的更好治疗进行更多的研究。

    Chapter Summary
    ::章次摘要

    In this chapter, you learned about the immune system. Specifically, you learned that:
    ::在本章中,你了解了免疫系统。具体地说,你学到了:

    • Any agent that can cause disease is called a pathogen. Most human pathogens are microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses. The immune system is the body system that defends the human host from pathogens and cancerous cells.
      ::大多数人类病原体是微生物,如细菌和病毒,免疫系统是人体系统,保护人体免受病原体和癌症细胞的侵袭。
    • The innate immune system is a subset of the immune system that provides very quick, but non-specific responses to pathogens. It includes multiple types of barriers to pathogens, leukocytes that phagocytize pathogens, and several other general responses.
      ::内生免疫系统是免疫系统的一个子集,对病原体的反应非常迅速,但并不具体,其中包括对病原体的多种障碍、对病原体进行截肢的白血球和其他几种一般性反应。
    • The adaptive immune system is a subset of the immune system that provides specific responses tailored to particular pathogens. It takes longer to put into effect, but it may lead to immunity to the pathogens.
      ::适应性免疫系统是免疫系统的一个子集,提供针对特定病原体的具体反应,需要更长的时间才能实施,但可能导致病原体的豁免。
    • Both innate and adaptive immune responses depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. Most body cells have major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins that identify them as self. Pathogens, infected cells, and tumor cells have non-self proteins called antigens that the immune system recognizes as foreign.
      ::自然和适应性免疫反应都取决于免疫系统区分自体分子和非自体分子的能力。 大部分身体细胞有主要的生理兼容性综合蛋白质(MHC ) , 表明它们为自体。 病原体、受感染细胞和肿瘤细胞都有被免疫系统视为外来的被称为抗原的非自体蛋白。
    • Antigens are proteins that bind to specific receptors on immune system cells and elicit an adaptive immune response. Some immune cells (B cells) respond to foreign antigens by producing antibodies that bind with antigens and target pathogens for destruction.
      ::抗原是一种蛋白质,与免疫系统细胞上的特定受体结合,并产生适应性免疫反应,一些免疫细胞(B细胞)通过产生与抗原结合的抗体和将病原体作为销毁目标,对外国抗原作出反应。
    • An important role of the immune system is tumor surveillance. Killer T cells of the adaptive immune system find and destroy tumor cells, which they can identify from their abnormal antigens.
      ::免疫系统的一个重要作用是肿瘤监测。适应性免疫系统的杀手T细胞发现并摧毁肿瘤细胞,从异常抗原中可以识别出肿瘤细胞。
    • The neuroimmune system that protects the central nervous system is thought to be distinct from the peripheral immune system that protects the rest of the human body. The blood-brain and blood-spinal cord barriers are one type of protection of the neuroimmune system. Glial cells also play a role in this system, for example, by carrying out phagocytosis.
      ::保护中枢神经系统的神经免疫系统被认为有别于保护人体其余部分的外围免疫系统,血液脑部和血液脊髓屏障是神经免疫系统的一种保护形式,淋巴细胞也在这个系统中发挥作用,例如,通过进行发性硬化。
    • The lymphatic system is a human organ system that is a vital part of the adaptive immune system. It consists of several organs and a system of vessels that transport or filter the fluid called lymph. The main immune function of the lymphatic system is to produce, mature, harbor, and circulate white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are the main cells in the adaptive immune system, and are circulated in lymph.
      ::淋巴系统是一种人体器官系统,是适应性免疫系统的重要组成部分,由若干器官和运送或过滤称为淋巴液的船只系统组成,淋巴系统的主要免疫功能是产生、成熟、保存和循环称为淋巴细胞的白血细胞,淋巴细胞是适应性免疫系统的主要细胞,以淋巴细胞传播。
      • The return of lymph to the bloodstream is one of the functions of the lymphatic system. Lymph flows from tissue spaces, where it leaks out of blood vessels, to major veins in the upper chest. It is then returned to the cardiovascular system. Lymph is similar in composition to blood plasma. Its main cellular components are lymphocytes.
        ::淋巴体返回血液是淋巴系统功能之一,淋巴体从组织空间流出,从组织空间渗出,从血管渗出,流到上胸部的主要血管,然后返回心血管系统,淋巴体的成分与血浆相似,其主要细胞成分是淋巴细胞。
      • Lymphatic vessels called lacteals are found in villi that line the small intestine. Lacteals absorb fatty acids from the digestion of lipids in the digestive system. The fatty acids are then transported through the network of lymphatic vessels to the bloodstream.
        ::在小肠线的葡萄酒中发现了称为lacteal的液态容器,液态容器吸收消化系统中脂肪消化过程中的脂肪酸,然后通过淋巴容器网络将脂肪酸输送到血液中。
      • Lymphocytes, which include B cells and T cells, are the subset of white blood cells that are involved in adaptive immune responses. They may create a lasting memory of and immunity to specific pathogens.
        ::包括B型细胞和T型细胞在内的淋巴细胞是参与适应性免疫反应的白细胞的子集,可产生对特定病原体的持久记忆和免疫。
      • All lymphocytes are produced in bone marrow and then go through a process of maturation, in which they “learn” to distinguish self from non-self. B cells mature in the bone marrow, and T cells mature in the thymus. Both the bone marrow and thymus are considered primary lymphatic organs.
        ::所有淋巴细胞都是用骨髓生成的,然后经历一个成熟过程,在这个过程中,它们“学习”以区分自我和非自我。 B 细胞在骨髓中成熟,T 细胞在胸腺中成熟。 骨髓和胸腺都被视为主要的淋巴器官。
      • Secondary lymphatic organs include the tonsils, spleen, and lymph nodes. There are four pairs of tonsils that encircle the throat. The spleen filters blood, as well as lymph. There are hundreds of lymph nodes located in clusters along the lymphatic vessels. All of these secondary organs filter lymph and store lymphocytes, so they are sites where pathogens encounter and activate lymphocytes and initiate adaptive immune responses.
        ::二次淋巴器官包括、脾脏和淋巴结。有四对环绕喉咙。脾脏过滤器包括血液和淋巴。淋巴船沿线有数百个淋巴结,所有这些二级器官过滤器包括淋巴细胞和储存淋巴细胞,因此它们是病原体遇到并激活淋巴细胞并启动适应性免疫反应的场所。

      ::淋巴细胞返回血液流是淋巴细胞系统的一种功能。淋巴细胞从组织空间流出,从组织空间流出,从血管中渗出,流到上胸的主要血管。然后,流到心血管系统。淋巴细胞的成分与血浆相似。主要的细胞成分是淋巴细胞。淋巴细胞的成分是淋巴细胞。被称为淋巴细胞的血管在树脂里找到,小肠线状的淋巴细胞。拉卡耳从消化系统中的脂肪中吸收脂肪酸。脂肪酸从组织空间,从组织空间流出,从组织空间渗出,从血管中流出,流到上胸部的主要血管。淋巴细胞(包括B细胞和T细胞)是白血细胞的分支,它们可能对特定的病原病原体产生持久的记忆和免疫力。所有淋巴细胞都是用骨髓生成的,然后从消化过程中“液细胞”从消化出来, 脂肪酸酸通过淋巴细胞的网络输送到非自己。骨骼细胞的细胞在血液流中逐渐成熟,骨细胞在骨质细胞中,骨质细胞和骨质细胞的细胞在骨质细胞中,在骨质中,这些器官的细胞中都是在骨质细胞中, 。骨细胞中,在骨细胞中,在骨质中,在血液中,在骨细胞中,在骨质中,在骨细胞中,在骨质中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在骨中,在骨中,在骨中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中,在血液中
    • Unlike the adaptive immune system, the innate immune system does not confer immunity. The innate immune system includes surface barriers, inflammation, the complement system, and a variety of cellular responses.
      ::与适应性免疫系统不同的是,内生免疫系统不赋予免疫,内生免疫系统包括表面屏障、炎症、补充系统和各种细胞反应。
      • The body’s first line of defense consists of three different types of barriers that keep most pathogens out of body tissues. The types of barriers are mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers.
        ::人体的第一道防线由三种不同类型的屏障组成,这些屏障使大多数病原体无法进入人体组织。 屏障的类型是机械、化学和生物屏障。
        • Mechanical barriers — which include the skin, mucous membranes, and fluids (such as tears and urine) — physically block pathogens from entering the body.
          ::机械屏障——包括皮肤、粘膜膜和液体(如眼泪和尿液)——实际阻止病原体进入身体。
        • Chemical barriers — such as enzymes in sweat, saliva, and semen — kill pathogens on body surfaces.
          ::化学屏障——例如汗、唾液和精液中的酶——在身体表面杀死病原体。
        • Biological barriers are harmless bacteria that use up food and space so pathogenic bacteria cannot colonize the body.
          ::生物屏障是无害细菌,它们利用食物和空间,因此病原体细菌不能使人体殖民化。

        ::机械屏障——包括皮肤、粘膜膜和液体(如眼泪和尿液)——实际阻止病原体进入身体,化学屏障——如汗、唾液和精液中的酶——杀死身体表面的病原体,生物屏障是无害细菌,它们使用食物和空间,因此病原细菌不能使身体殖民化。
      • If pathogens breach the protective barriers, inflammation occurs. This creates a physical barrier against the spread of infection and repairs tissue damage. Inflammation is triggered by chemicals (such as cytokines and histamines), and it causes swelling, redness, and warmth.
        ::如果病原体突破保护屏障,就会发生炎症,从而形成防止感染扩散和修复组织损伤的物质屏障,引发炎症的是化学物质(如细胞皮和甲胺),造成肿胀、红红和温暖。
      • The complement system is a complex biochemical mechanism that helps antibodies kill pathogens. Once activated, the complement system consists of more than two dozen proteins that lead to disruption of the cell membrane of pathogens and bursting of the cells.
        ::补充系统是一个复杂的生化机制,有助于抗体杀死病原体,一旦激活,补充系统由20多个蛋白组成,导致细胞病原体膜中断和细胞破裂。
      • Cellular responses of the innate immune system involve various types of leukocytes (white blood cells). For example, neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells phagocytize pathogens. Basophils and mast cells release chemicals that trigger inflammation. Natural killer cells destroy cancerous or virus-infected cells, and eosinophils kill parasites.
        ::内生免疫系统的细胞反应涉及各种白血球(白血球),例如,肺部营养素、巨细胞和嵌入性细胞将病原体划入脑细胞,巴索比勒和甲状腺细胞释放出引发炎症的化学物质,自然杀手细胞摧毁癌症或病毒感染的细胞,雌雄素杀死寄生虫。
      • Many pathogens have evolved mechanisms that help them evade the innate immune system. For example, some pathogens form a protective capsule around themselves, and some mimic host cells so the immune system does not recognize them as foreign.
        ::许多病原体已经发展出一些机制来帮助他们逃避天生的免疫系统。 比如,一些病原体形成一个保护胶囊,一些模仿宿主细胞,因此免疫系统不承认它们是外来的。

      ::人体的第一道防线由三种不同类型的屏障组成,使大多数病原体远离人体组织。 各种屏障是机械、化学和生物屏障。 机械屏障包括皮肤、粘膜、膜和液体(如眼泪和尿)等物理阻塞病原体进入人体。 化学屏障,如汗、唾液和精液中的酶,杀死人体表面的病原体。 生物屏障是无害的细菌,它们利用食物和空间,病原体细菌无法使身体成为温床。 如果病原体突破保护屏障,就会出现炎热。 机械屏障(包括皮肤、粘膜和尿液)和液体(包括皮肤和尿液)等物理屏障屏障阻隔着感染和修复组织损伤的病原体。 补充系统是一个复杂的生物化学机制,可以帮助抗体杀死病原体。 一旦激活, 补充系统由超过20多个蛋白质的蛋白质细胞组成,可以破坏病原体的细胞和细胞破裂。 细胞内肝脏的病原体反应系统本身, 以及内肝脏病原体病原体的机体病变。
    • The main cells of the adaptive immune system are lymphocytes. There are two major types of lymphocytes: T cells and B cells. Both types must be activated by foreign antigens to become functioning immune cells.
      ::适应性免疫系统的主要细胞是淋巴细胞,有两大类淋巴细胞:T细胞和B细胞,两种类型都必须由外国抗原激活,才能成为功能性免疫细胞。
      • Most activated T cells become either killer T cells or helper T cells. Killer T cells destroy cells that are infected with pathogens or are cancerous. Helper T cells manage immune responses by releasing cytokines that control other types of leukocytes.
        ::大部分活性T细胞要么成为杀手T细胞,要么成为帮手T细胞。杀手T细胞摧毁感染病原体或癌症的细胞。帮助T细胞通过释放控制其他类型白血球的细胞来控制免疫反应。
      • Activated B cells form plasma cells that secrete antibodies, which bind to specific antigens on pathogens or infected cells. The antibody-antigen complexes generally lead to the destruction of the cells, for example, by attracting phagocytes or triggering the complement system.
        ::活性B细胞形成分离抗体的等离子细胞,与病原体或受感染细胞上的特定抗原结合,抗体抗原综合体通常导致细胞的破坏,例如通过吸引发细胞或触发补充系统。

      ::大多数活性T细胞要么成为致命T细胞,要么成为帮助T细胞。杀手T细胞摧毁感染病原体或癌症的细胞。帮助T细胞通过释放控制其他类型白血球的细胞外皮来控制免疫反应。激活B细胞形成分泌抗体的血浆细胞,这些细胞与病原体或受感染细胞的特定抗原结合。抗体抗原综合体通常导致细胞的破坏,例如通过吸引发细胞或触发补充系统。
    • After an adaptive immune response occurs, long-lasting memory B cells and memory T cells may remain to confer immunity to the specific pathogen that caused the adaptive immune response. These memory cells are ready to activate an immediate response if they are exposed to the same antigen again in the future.
      ::在适应性免疫反应发生后,长效记忆B细胞和记忆T细胞可能保留,以便给导致适应性免疫反应的特定病原体以免疫。 这些记忆细胞准备在将来再次接触同一种抗原时立即启动反应。
      • Immunity may be active or passive. Active immunity occurs when the immune system has been presented with antigens that elicit an adaptive immune response. This may occur naturally as the result of an infection, or artificially as the result of immunization. Active immunity may last for years or even for life.
        ::当向免疫系统提供抗原,引起适应性免疫反应时,即为主动豁免,这可以自然地因感染而发生,或者人为地因免疫而发生。 主动豁免可以持续数年甚至终生。
      • Passive immunity occurs without an adaptive immune response by the transfer of antibodies or activated T cells. This may occur naturally between a mother and her fetus or her nursing infant, or it may occur artificially by injection. Passive immunity lasts only as long as the antibodies or activated T cells remain alive in the body, generally just weeks or months.
        ::被动免疫性豁免发生时,没有通过转移抗体或活性T细胞来作出适应性免疫反应,这可能自然发生在母亲与胎儿或哺乳婴儿之间,也可能是人工注射。 被动免疫性豁免只有在抗体或活性T细胞在身体中存活,通常只有几周或几个月。

      ::主动豁免可以是主动的,也可以是被动的。当向免疫系统提供可引起适应性免疫反应的抗原时,即为主动豁免。这可以自然地因感染而发生,或者人为地因免疫而发生。主动豁免可以持续数年甚至终生。被动豁免可以持续数年甚至终生。通过抗体或活性T细胞的转移而发生,不因适应性免疫反应。这可以自然地发生在母亲与胎儿或哺乳婴儿之间,或者通过注射人工产生。被动豁免只有在抗体或活性T细胞在身体中存活,通常只有几个星期或几个月。
    • Many pathogens have evolved mechanisms to evade the adaptive immune system. For example, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) evades the adaptive immune system by frequently changing its antigens and by forming its outer envelope from the host’s cell membrane.
      ::许多病原体已经发展出逃避适应性免疫系统的机制。 比如,人体免疫机能丧失病毒(HIV)通过频繁改变抗原和从宿主细胞膜中形成外壳来规避适应性免疫系统。
    • An allergy is a disorder in which the immune system makes an inflammatory response to a harmless antigen. Any antigen that causes allergies is called an allergen. Common allergens include pollen, dust mites, mold, specific foods (such as peanuts), insect stings, and certain medications (such as aspirin).
      ::过敏是一种疾病,免疫系统对无害抗原作出煽动性反应。 任何导致过敏的抗原都被称为过敏。 常见的过敏原包括花粉、粉尘模型、霉素、特定食品(如花生)、昆虫刺和某些药物(如阿司匹林 ) 。
      • The prevalence of allergies has been increasing for decades, especially in developed countries, where they are much more common than in developing countries. The hygiene hypothesis posits that this has occurred because humans evolved to cope with more pathogens than we now typically face in our relatively sterile environments in developed countries. As a result, the immune system “keeps busy” by attacking harmless antigens.
        ::几十年来,过敏的流行一直在增加,特别是在发达国家,发达国家比发展中国家更为常见。 卫生假设认为,之所以出现这种情况,是因为人类在发达国家的相对不育的环境中,已经发展到与我们现在通常面对的病原体相比更多的程度。 结果,免疫系统通过攻击无害抗原“保持繁忙 ” 。
      • Allergies occur when B cells are first activated to produce large amounts of antibodies to an otherwise harmless allergen, and the antibodies attach to mast cells. On subsequent exposures to the allergen, the mast cells immediately release cytokines and histamines that cause inflammation.
        ::当B细胞首先被激活以产生大量抗体来达到本来无害的过敏体,而抗体附着在螺旋细胞上时,就会发生过敏。 在随后接触过敏细胞时,管状细胞会立即释放出引发炎症的细胞和甲胺。
      • Mild allergy symptoms are frequently treated with antihistamines that counter histamines and reduce allergy symptoms. A severe systemic allergic reaction, called anaphylaxis, is a medical emergency that is usually treated with injections of epinephrine. Immunotherapy for allergies involves injecting increasing amounts of allergens to desensitize the immune system to them.
        ::低过敏症状经常用抗脑膜炎和减少过敏症状的抗脊髓灰质炎治疗。 严重的系统过敏反应(称为厌食性麻痹 ) , 是一种通常通过注射肾上腺素治疗的紧急医疗反应。 过敏的免疫疗法包括注射越来越多的过敏基因,让免疫系统失去知觉。

      ::几十年来,过敏的流行一直在增加,特别是在发达国家,它们比发展中国家更为常见。卫生假设认为,之所以出现这种情况,是因为人类在发达国家的相对不育环境中演变,对付的病原体比我们现在通常面对的病原体要多。因此,免疫系统“繁忙地”攻击无害的抗原。当B细胞首先起动,生产大量抗体以达到本来无害的过敏,并产生与杆状细胞相连的抗体时,就会发生过敏。随后接触过敏的母细胞会立即释放出导致炎症的细胞素和脑胺。低过敏症状经常用抗口胺治疗,以抗脊髓胺并减少过敏症状。严重的系统过敏反应,称为厌食性反应,是一种通常通过注射肾上腺素进行治疗的紧急医疗反应。对过敏细胞的免疫疗法包括注射越来越多的过敏性灵,以对免疫系统进行防疫。
    • Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system fails to recognize the body’s own molecules as self and attacks them, causing damage to tissues and organs. A family history of autoimmunity and female gender are risk factors for autoimmune diseases.
      ::当免疫系统不承认人体的分子是自我分子并攻击它们,从而对组织和器官造成损害时,就会发生自发性疾病。 家庭自发性和女性性的历史是自发性疾病的危险因素。
      • In some autoimmune diseases, such as type I diabetes, the immune system attacks and damages specific body cells. In other autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, many different tissues and organs may be attacked and injured. Autoimmune diseases generally cannot be cured, but their symptoms can often be managed with drugs or other treatments.
        ::在一些自发性疾病中,如I型糖尿病、免疫系统攻击和损害特定身体细胞;在其他自发性疾病中,如系统性脑膜炎等,许多不同的组织和器官可能受到攻击和伤害;自发性疾病一般无法治愈,但其症状往往可以用药物或其他治疗方法来控制。

      ::在一些自发性疾病中,如I型糖尿病、免疫系统攻击和损害特定身体细胞;在其他自发性疾病中,如系统性脑膜炎等,许多不同的组织和器官可能受到攻击和伤害;自发性疾病一般无法治愈,但其症状往往可以用药物或其他治疗方法来控制。
    • Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is not working properly, generally because one or more of its components are inactive. As a result, the immune system is unable to fight off pathogens or cancers that a normal immune system would be able to resist.
      ::当免疫系统不能正常运转时,即发生免疫缺陷,这一般是因为其一个或一个以上部件不活动,因此免疫系统无法对抗正常免疫系统能够抵抗的病原体或癌症。
      • Primary immunodeficiency is present at birth and caused by rare genetic diseases. An example is severe combined immunodeficiency. Secondary immunodeficiency occurs because of some event or exposure experienced after birth. Possible causes include substance abuse, obesity, and malnutrition, among others.
        ::初生先天免疫机能丧失症存在于出生时,由罕见遗传疾病造成,例如严重综合免疫机能丧失症,因某些事件或出生后接触而发生二级免疫机能丧失症,可能的原因包括药物滥用、肥胖症和营养不良等。
      • The most common cause of immunodeficiency in the world today is human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which infects and destroys helper T cells. HIV is transmitted through mucous membranes or body fluids. The virus may eventually lead to such low levels of helper T cells that opportunistic infections occur. When this happens, the patient is diagnosed with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Medications can control the multiplication of HIV in the human body, but it can't  eliminate the virus completely.
        ::人体免疫机能丧失病毒(HIV)是当今世界造成免疫机能丧失症的最常见原因,它感染和摧毁了T类帮手细胞。艾滋病毒通过粘膜膜或体液传播。病毒最终可能导致T类帮手细胞的低水平,造成机会性感染。一旦发生这种情况,病人被诊断患有后天免疫机能丧失综合症(艾滋病 ) 。药物可以控制人体艾滋病毒的倍增,但不能完全消灭病毒。

      ::初级免疫机能丧失病毒(HIV)是当今世界最常见的致免疫机能丧失病毒(HIV),它感染和摧毁了T细胞。艾滋病毒是通过粘膜或体液传播的。病毒可能最终导致出现机会性感染的低水平的帮助性T细胞。如果发生这种情况,病人将被诊断为后天免疫机能丧失综合症(艾滋病)。药物可以控制人体艾滋病毒的繁殖,但它不能完全消灭病毒。

    Up to this point, this book has covered body systems that carry out processes within individuals, such as the digestive, muscular, and immune systems. Read the next chapter to learn about the body system that allows humans to produce new individuals — the reproductive system.
    ::至此,本书涵盖个人内部实施过程的身体系统,如消化、肌肉和免疫系统,阅读下一章了解允许人类产生新个体的身体系统——生殖系统。

    Chapter Summary Review
    ::" 概述 " 章次

    1. The skin plays a role in establishing mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers that protect the body against pathogens. Give one example of how the skin contributes to each type of barrier.
    ::1. 皮肤在建立保护身体不受病原体伤害的机械、化学和生物屏障方面发挥作用,举一个例子说明皮肤是如何造成每一种屏障的。

    2. Compare and contrast a pathogen and an allergen.
    ::2. 比较和对比病原体和过敏体。

    3. Describe three ways in which pathogens can enter the body.
    ::3. 描述病原体可以进入身体的三种方式。

    4. For each of the following immune responses, state whether it is an innate or adaptive immune response.
    ::4. 对于下列每种免疫反应,请说明是先天免疫反应还是适应性免疫反应。

    a. inflammation
    ::a. 发炎

    b. lymphocyte activation
    ::b. 淋巴细胞活化

    c. phagocytosis by leukocytes
    ::c. 白血球细胞病

    d. plasma cell maturation
    ::d. 等离子细胞细胞成熟期

    5. The complement system involves the activation of several proteins to kill pathogens. Why do you think this is considered part of the innate immune system, instead of the adaptive immune system?
    ::5. 补充系统涉及激活若干蛋白质来杀死病原体,你为什么认为这被认为是内生免疫系统的一部分,而不是适应性免疫系统的一部分?

    6. Why are innate immune responses generally faster than adaptive immune responses?
    ::6. 为什么天生的免疫反应一般比适应性免疫反应快?

    7. True or False:  There is more than one type of immune system cell that can carry out phagocytosis.
    ::7. 真实或假的:有一种以上的免疫系统细胞可以进行脑细胞分裂。

    8. True or False:  Semen can act as a chemical barrier against pathogens.
    ::8. 真实或假:精液可以作为防止病原体的化学屏障。

    9. True or False:  Leukocytes in the innate immune system are all phagocytic.
    ::9. 真实的或假的:本源免疫系统中的列骨球菌都是地貌的。

    10. Which type of immunity is triggered by vaccination?
    ::10. 何种类型的免疫因接种疫苗而引发?

    a. artificially acquired active immunity
    ::a. 人为获得的主动豁免

    b. artificially acquired natural immunity
    ::b. 人为获得的自然豁免

    c. artificially acquired passive immunity
    ::c. 人为获得的被动豁免

    d. innate immunity
    ::d. 原豁免

    11. Explain how an autoimmune disease could be triggered by a pathogen.
    ::11. 解释如何使病原体触发自动免疫疾病。

    12. What is an opportunistic infection?  Name two diseases or conditions that could result in opportunistic infections. Explain your answer.
    ::12. 什么是机会性感染?列出可能导致机会性感染的两种疾病或条件,解释你的答复。

    13. Match each description below with the cell type that best fits it from the list provided. Each cell type is used only once.
    ::13. 下面的每个说明与所提供的清单中最适合的单元格类型相匹配,每个单元格类型只使用一次。

    Cell types: mast cells; B cells; killer T cells 
    ::单元格类型: 杆形单元格; B 单元格; 杀手T 单元格

    a. directly destroys body cells that are cancerous or infected with a pathogen
    ::a. 直接摧毁有癌症或感染病原体的细胞。

    b. secretes histamines and are involved in allergies
    ::b. 分泌脑胺并参与过敏

    c. once activated, these cells multiply and their daughter cells mature into plasma cells
    ::c. 一旦激活,这些细胞会增加,其子细胞会成血浆细胞。

    14. Which cell type in the immune system can be considered an “antibody factory?"

    ::14. 免疫系统中哪一类细胞可被视为 " 抗体工厂 " ?

    15. Besides foreign pathogens, what is one thing that the immune system protects the body against?
    ::15. 除了外国病原体外,免疫系统保护身体免受什么影响?

    16. What cell type in the immune system is infected and killed by HIV?
    ::16. 免疫系统中哪些细胞型被艾滋病毒感染和杀死?

    17. What is the difference between primary lymphoid organs and secondary lymphoid organs? Give one example of each in your answer.
    ::17. 主淋巴瘤器官与次生淋巴瘤器官之间有什么区别?请在回答中分别举一个例子。

    18. Name two types of cells that produce cytokines in the immune system.  What are two functions of cytokines in the immune system?
    ::18. 列出在免疫系统中产生细胞素的两类细胞:免疫系统中细胞素的两种功能是什么?

    19. Many pathogens evade the immune system by altering their outer surface in some way. Based on what you know about the functioning of the immune system, why is this often a successful approach?
    ::19. 许多病原体以某种方式改变其外表表面,从而逃避了免疫系统,根据你对免疫系统运作情况的了解,为什么这往往是一个成功的办法?

    20. Major histocompatibility complex proteins:
    ::20. 主要遗传兼容性复合蛋白质:

    a. are involved in antigen-presentation by B cells
    ::a. 涉及B细胞的抗原展示

    b. help distinguish cells as self
    ::b. 帮助区分作为自定义单元格的单元格

    c. produce histamines
    ::c. 生产异丙胺

     d. A and B
    ::d. A和B

    21. What is “missing self?" How does this condition arise?
    ::21. " 自我丧失 " 是什么? 这一状况是如何产生的?

    22. True or False:  Sometimes, only part of a pathogen is used to create a vaccine.
    ::22. 真实或假:有时,只有部分病原体被用于制造疫苗。

    23. True or False:  An antigen is the same as an allergen.
    ::23. 真实或假:抗原与过敏相同。