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  • 科学理论 - 高级

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    Theory vs. theory. Is a scientific theory different from the everyday use of the word theory?
    ::理论理论与理论理论的日常使用是否不同?

    The Big Bang Theory . The Theory of Gravity. The Plate Tectonic Theory. The Modern Atomic Theory. The . The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection . These are all classic scientific theories. So, without a doubt, yes, a scientific theory is very different from the everyday use of the word theory. A scientific theory is accepted as a scientific truth, supported by evidence collected by many scientists. Lots of data has been collected to support theories, and no data has been identified to prove theories incorrect. That does not necessarily mean that evidence does not exist against a theory does not exist, it simply means that evidence has yet to be identified.
    ::《大爆炸理论》,《重力理论》,《高原构造理论》,《现代原子理论》,《自然选择的进化理论》,《自然选择的现代原子理论》,《自然选择的进化理论》,这些都是经典的科学理论。因此,毫无疑问,科学理论与日常使用该词理论大不相同。科学理论被接受为科学真理,并得到了许多科学家收集的证据的支持。已经收集了大量数据来支持理论,没有找到任何数据来证明理论不正确。这并不一定意味着不存在与理论相反的证据,它只是意味着证据还有待确定。

    Scientific Theories
    ::科学理论

    Scientific theories are hypotheses which have stood up to repeated attempts at falsification and are thus supported by a great deal of data and evidence. Some well known biological theories include the theory of evolution by natural selection, the cell theory (the idea that all organisms are made of cells), and the germ theory of disease (the idea that certain microbes cause certain diseases). The scientific community holds that a greater amount of evidence supports these ideas than contradicts them, and so they are referred to as theories. In fact, no evidence has been identified to disprove these or other scientific theories.
    ::科学理论是多次试图伪造科学理论的假设,因此得到了大量数据和证据的支持。 一些众所周知的生物理论包括自然选择的进化理论、细胞理论(所有生物都是细胞组成的理念)和疾病细菌理论(某些微生物造成某些疾病的观点 ) 。 科学界认为,更多的证据支持这些理念,而不是与之相矛盾,因此它们被称为理论。 事实上,没有找到任何证据来反驳这些理论或其他科学理论。

    In every day use, people often use the word theory to describe a guess or an opinion. For example, “I have a theory as to why the light bulb is not working.” When used in this common way, “theory” does not have to be based on facts. It does not have to be based on a true description of reality. This usage of the word theory often leads to a misconception that can be best summed up by the phrase, "It's not a fact, it's only a theory." In such everyday usage, the word is most similar to the term hypothesis.
    ::每天使用时,人们常常用理论这个词来描述猜想或观点。例如,“我有一个理论来解释灯泡为什么不起作用。” 以这种通常的方式使用时,“理论”不必以事实为基础,它不必以真实描述现实为基础。 理论的这种用法往往导致一种误解,可以用“这不是事实,而只是理论”这一短语来概括。 在这种日常使用中,这个词与假设最相似。

    Scientific theories are the equivalent of what in everyday speech we would refer to as facts . In principle, scientific theories are always subject to corrections or inclusion in another, wider theory. As a general rule for use of the term, theories tend to deal with broader sets of phenomena than do hypotheses, which usually deal with much more specific sets of phenomena or specific applications of a theory.
    ::科学理论相当于日常演讲中我们所说的事实。 原则上,科学理论总是要被修正或纳入另一个更广泛的理论中。 作为使用这一术语的一般规则,理论往往涉及比假设更广泛的一系列现象,这些假设通常涉及更具体的一系列现象或一种理论的具体应用。

    Constructing Theories
    ::正在构造定理

    In time, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or may grow to become a theory itself. Scientific hypotheses may be mathematical models. Sometimes they can be statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations. These theories have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.
    ::科学假设可能是数学模型,有时也可以是陈述,指出所研究现象的某些特定实例具有某些特点和因果解释。 这些理论具有普遍声明的一般形式,指出每个实例都有特定特征。

    A hypothesis may predict the outcome of an in a or the observation of a natural phenomenon. A hypothesis should also be falsifiable , and one cannot regard a hypothesis or a theory as scientific if it does not lend itself to being falsified, even in the future. To meet the “falsifiable” requirement, it must at least in principle be possible to make an observation that would disprove the hypothesis. A falsifiable hypothesis can greatly simplify the process of testing to determine whether the hypothesis can be proven to be false. Scientific methods rely heavily on the falsifiability of hypotheses by experimentation and observation in order to answer questions. Philosopher Karl Popper suggested that all scientific theories should be falsifiable, or otherwise they could not be tested by experiment.
    ::假设可以预测自然现象的某种结果或观察自然现象的结果。假设也应该是可以伪造的,假设不能被视为科学的假设或理论,即便在将来也不能假造。为了满足“可伪造”的要求,原则上至少必须能够提出可以推翻假设的意见。一个可伪造的假设可以大大简化测试过程,以确定假设是否可以被证明是虚假的。科学方法在很大程度上依靠实验和观察的假设的可伪造性来回答问题。哲学家卡尔·波珀建议,所有科学理论都应该可以伪造,否则它们不能通过实验进行测试。

    A scientific theory must meet the following requirements:
    ::科学理论必须符合下列要求:

    • it must be consistent with a pre-existing theory. The pre-existing theory must have been experimentally verified, though it may often show a pre-existing theory to be wrong in an exact sense,
      ::先前存在的理论必须是经过实验核实的,尽管它可能常常表明先前存在的理论在确切意义上是错误的,
    • it must be supported by many strands of evidence rather than a single foundation, ensuring that it is a good approximation or even completely correct.
      ::它必须得到许多证据的支持,而不是一个单一的基础,以确保它是一个良好的近似,甚至完全正确。

    Also, a theory is generally only taken seriously if it:
    ::此外,通常只有在下述情况下才认真对待理论:

    • allows for changes to be made as new data is discovered, rather than claiming absolute certainty,
      ::允许在发现新数据后进行修改,而不是要求绝对确定性,
    • is the most straight forward explanation, and makes the fewest assumptions about a phenomenon (commonly called “passing the Occam's razor test”).
      ::这是最直截了当的解释,对一种现象(通常称为“通过奥卡姆剃刀试验”)的假设最少。

    This is true of such established theories as those of special relativity, general relativity, quantum mechanics, plate tectonics, and evolution. Theories considered scientific ideally meet all of these extra criteria as well.
    ::特殊相对论、一般相对论、量子力学、板块构造学和进化学等既定理论都是如此。 科学理论认为科学最好也符合所有这些额外标准。

    In summary, to meet the status of a scientific theory, the theory must be falsifiable or testable. Examples of scientific theories in different areas of science include:
    ::总之,为了符合科学理论的地位,该理论必须是可变的或可检验的。

    • Astronomy : Big Bang Theory
      ::天文学:大爆炸理论
    • Biology : Cell Theory; Theory of Evolution; Germ Theory of Disease
      ::生物学:细胞理论;进化理论;疾病热理论
    • Chemistry : Atomic Theory; Kinetic Theory of Gases
      ::化学:原子理论;气体动力学理论
    • Physics : General Relativity; Special Relativity; Theory of Relativity; Quantum Field Theory
      ::物理学:一般相对论;特别相对论;相对论理论;量子场理论
    • Earth Science : Giant Impact Theory; Plate Tectonics
      ::地球科学:巨型撞击理论;热板构造学

    Unverifiable Theories
    ::无法核查的理论

    The term theory is sometimes stretched to refer to theoretical speculation which is currently unverifiable. A couple examples of such uses include string theory and the theory of everything. String theory is a model of physics, which predicts the existence of many more dimensions in the universe than the four dimensions that current science understands (length, width, height, and space-time). The theory of everything is a hypothetical theory in physics that fully explains and links together all known physical phenomena.
    ::理论有时被拉长到指目前无法核实的理论推测。 几个这类应用的例子包括弦理论和万物理论。 弦理论是物理学的模型,它预测宇宙中存在比当前科学所理解的四个维度(长度、宽度、高度和时空)更多的维度。 万物理论是物理学中的假设理论,它充分解释和连接所有已知物理现象。

    For a scientific theory to be valid, it must be verified experimentally. Many parts of the string theory are currently untestable due to the large amount of energy that would be needed to carry out the necessary experiments as well as the high cost of conducting these experiments. Therefore string theory may not be tested in the foreseeable future. Some scientists have even questioned whether it deserves to be called a scientific theory because it is not falsifiable.
    ::要使科学理论有效,就必须进行实验性验证。 弦理论的许多部分目前都无法验证,因为进行必要的实验需要大量能量,而且进行这些实验的成本也很高。 因此弦理论在可预见的将来可能不会被测试。 一些科学家甚至质疑它是否值得被称为科学理论,因为它不是伪造的。

    Superseded Theories
    ::取代理论论

    A superseded theory , or obsolete scientific theory is a theory that was once commonly accepted, but for a given reason is no longer considered the most complete description of reality by mainstream science. It can also refer to a falsifiable theory which has been shown to be false. Giraffes, shown in Figure , are often used in the explanation of Lamarck's superseded theory of evolution. In Lamarckism, a giraffe lengthens its neck over the course of its life in order to, for example, reach higher leaves. That giraffe will then have offspring with longer necks. The theory has been superseded by the understanding of on of organisms as the main means of evolution (Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection), not physical changes to a single organism over its lifetime.
    ::被取代的理论,或过时的科学理论,是曾经被普遍接受的理论,但出于某种原因,主流科学不再认为是对现实的最完整描述。它也可以指一个被证明为虚假的伪造理论。图中显示的Giraffes经常被用于解释Lamarck被取代的进化理论。在Lamarckism中,长颈鹿在生命过程中的颈部长到更高的叶子。然后,长颈鹿的后代脖子会更长。这一理论已经被将生物作为主要进化手段的理解所取代(Darwin的自然选择进化理论 ) , 而不是在生命期内对单一生物的物理变化。

    lesson content

    Superseded theories like Lamarck’s theory of evolution are theories that are now considered obsolete and have been replaced by newer theories that have more evidence to support them. In Lamarck’s case, his theory was replaced by Darwin’s theory of evolution and natural selection, which will be further discussed in additional concepts.
    ::拉马克的进化理论(Lamarck的进化理论)等理论取代了拉马克的进化理论(Lamarck的进化理论 ) , 这些理论现在被视为过时的理论,并被更新的理论所取代,这些理论有更多证据支持这些理论。 在拉马克的案例中,他的理论被达尔文的进化和自然选择理论所取代,而达尔文的进化和自然选择理论将在其他概念中进一步讨论。

    Scientific Laws
    ::科学法

    Scientific laws are similar to scientific theories, in that they are principles which can be used to predict the behavior of the natural world. Both scientific laws and scientific theories are typically well-supported by observations and/or experimental evidence. Usually scientific laws provide rules for how nature will behave under certain conditions. Scientific theories are more overarching explanations of how nature works and why it exhibits certain characteristics.
    ::科学法与科学理论相似,因为科学法是可用于预测自然界行为的原则。科学法和科学理论通常都得到观察和/或实验证据的有力支持。通常科学法为自然在特定条件下的行为提供了规则。科学理论更全面地解释了自然如何运作及其为何具有某些特征。

    A physical law or law of nature is a scientific generalization based on a sufficiently large number of empirical observations, so that it is accepted as fully verified.
    ::物理法或自然法是一种科学的概括,基于足够大量的实证观察,从而被接受为经过充分核实。

    Isaac Newton's law of gravitation is a famous example of an established law that was later found not to be universal—it does not hold in experiments involving motion at speeds close to the speed of light or in close proximity of strong gravitational fields. However, outside these conditions, Newton's laws remain an excellent model of motion and gravity.
    ::Isaaac Newton的引力法是后来被发现不具有普遍性的既定法律的一个著名例子——它并不存在于以接近光速的速度或靠近强重力引力场的速度进行运动的实验中,然而,在这些条件之外,牛顿的法律仍然是运动和引力的极好模型。

    Scientists never claim absolute knowledge of nature or the behavior of the subject of the field of study. A scientific theory is always open to falsification, if new evidence is presented. Even the most basic and fundamental theories may turn out to be imperfect if new observations are inconsistent with them. It is critical to make every relevant part of research publicly available. This allows for and encourages peer review of published results, and it also allows ongoing reviews, repetition of experiments and observations by many different researchers. Only by meeting these expectations can it be determined how reliable the experimental results are for possible use by others.
    ::科学家们从来不主张绝对了解研究领域的性质和行为。如果提出新的证据,科学理论总是可以作假的。即使最基本的理论如果与新观察不一致,也可能是不完善的。必须公开研究的每个相关部分。这允许并鼓励同侪审查公布的结果,也允许许多不同研究人员不断审查、重复实验和观察。只有满足这些期望,才能确定实验结果对他人可能使用的可靠性。

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Scientific theories are hypotheses which have stood up to repeated attempts at falsification and are thus supported by much data and evidence.
      ::科学理论是各种假设,这些假设抵制了反复的伪造企图,因此得到了许多数据和证据的支持。
    • Scientific laws are similar to scientific theories in that they are principles which can be used to predict the behavior of the natural world.
      ::科学法与科学理论相似,因为它们是可用于预测自然界行为的原则。
    • A scientific theory must be supported by many strands of evidence rather than a single foundation, ensuring that it is probably a good approximation, if not totally correct.
      ::科学理论必须得到许多证据的支持,而不是单一基础的支持,确保科学理论可能是很好的近似,如果不是完全正确的话。
    • A superseded scientific theory is a theory that was once commonly accepted, but is no longer considered the most complete description of reality by mainstream science.
      ::被取代的科学理论是一个曾经被普遍接受的理论,但不再被视为主流科学对现实的最完整描述。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. Identify two features that a theory must have, to qualify as a scientific theory.
      ::确定理论必须具备的两个特征,才能算作科学理论。
    2. Give an example of a superseded theory.
      ::举一个被取代理论的例子。
    3. What is meant by the following statement: A hypothesis should be falsifiable.
      ::以下声明的意思是:假设应当可以伪造。
    4. Distinguish between a scientific theory and a scientific law.
      ::区分科学理论和科学法。
    5. Give examples of scientific theory from a variety of scientific fields.
      ::举例说明各种科学领域的科学理论。