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  • 科学模型 -- -- 高级

    What is a scientific model?
    ::什么是科学模型?

    Looks like a human head, but it is obviously missing certain parts. Of course, this would be a model , and it could be considered a scientific model as it represents the anatomy of the head and skull. It can be used to teach about this anatomy.
    ::看起来像人头,但它显然缺少了某些部分。当然,这是一个模型,它可以被视为一个科学模型,因为它代表了人头和头骨的解剖学。它可以用来教授这种解剖学。

    Scientific Models
    ::科学模型

    To describe particular parts of a phenomenon, or the interactions among a set of phenomena, it is sometimes helpful to develop a model of the phenomenon. Scientific models are representations of reality. They can be a physical, mathematical, or logical representations of a system, phenomenon, or process, and they allow scientists to investigate a phenomenon in a controlled way. For instance, a scale model of a house or of a solar system is clearly not an actual house or an actual solar system. The parts of an actual house or an actual solar system represented by a scale model are, only in limited ways, representative of the actual objects ( Figure ).
    ::为了描述某种现象的特定部分或一系列现象之间的相互作用,有时制定一种现象的模型是有帮助的。科学模型是现实的体现。科学模型可以是系统、现象或过程的物理、数学或逻辑表现,它们允许科学家以有控制的方式调查某种现象。例如,房屋或太阳系的尺度模型显然不是实际的房屋或实际的太阳系。以比例模型表示的实际房屋或实际太阳系的部件,只能以有限的方式代表实际物体(图)。

    A model of planets of the solar system. This model is clearly not a real solar system; it is a representation of the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus. Scientists use representations of natural things to learn more about them. Also, the visitors to the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California can get a better idea of the relative sizes of the planets by observing this model.
    ::太阳系行星模型。 这个模型显然不是一个真正的太阳系; 它代表着行星水星、 金星、地球、火星、木星、土星和天王星。 科学家们用自然事物的表达来了解它们。 此外, 加利福尼亚州洛杉矶格里菲斯天文台的访问者通过观察这个模型可以更好地了解行星的相对大小。

    Scientific modeling is the process of making abstract models of natural phenomena. An abstract model is a theoretical construct that represents something. Models are developed to allow reasoning within a simplified framework that is similar to the phenomena being investigated. The simplified model may assume certain things that are known to be incomplete in some details. Such assumptions can be useful in that they simplify the model, while at the same time, allowing the of acceptably accurate solutions. These models play an important role in developing .
    ::科学建模是创造自然现象抽象模型的过程,抽象模型是一种理论构思,代表着某种东西。开发模型是为了在类似于所调查的现象的简化框架内进行推理。简化模型可能假定某些细节上已知的不完整。这些假设可能有用,因为它们简化了模型,同时允许采用可接受的准确解决办法。这些模型在发展过程中发挥着重要作用。

    A simulation is a model that runs over time. A simulation brings a model to life and shows how a particular object or phenomenon will behave. It is useful for testing, analysis or training where real-world systems or concepts can be represented by a model. For the scientist, a model also provides a way for calculations to be expanded to explore what might happen in different situations. This method often takes the form of models that can be programmed into computers. The scientist controls the basic assumptions about the variables in the model, and the computer runs the simulation, eventually coming to a complex answer.
    ::模拟是一种随时间推移的模型。 模拟将给生命带来一个模型, 并显示特定对象或现象的行为方式。 它对于测试、 分析或培训非常有用, 真实世界的系统或概念可以用模型来代表。 对于科学家来说, 模型也为扩大计算提供了一种方法, 以探索在不同情况下可能发生的情况。 这种方法通常采取模型的形式, 可以编入计算机。 科学家控制模型中变量的基本假设, 计算机运行模拟, 最终得出复杂的答案 。

    Examples of models include:
    ::模型实例包括:

    • Computer models
      ::计算机计算机模型
    • Weather forecast models
      ::天气预报模型
    • Molecular models
      ::分子模型
    • Climate models
      ::气候模型
    • models
      ::模型模型模型
    • Geologic models
      ::地质模型

    One of the main aims of scientific modeling is to allow researchers to quantify their observations about the world. In this way, researchers hope to see new things that may have escaped the notice of other researchers. There are many techniques that model builders use which allow us to discover things about a phenomenon that may not be obvious to everyone. 
    ::科学建模的主要目的之一是让研究人员量化其对世界的观察。 这样,研究人员希望看到其他研究人员可能忽视的新事物。 模型建设者使用了很多技术,使我们能够发现关于一种可能并非所有人都能看得见的现象。

    These two food chains represent the flow of energy in complex systems in nature. These conceptual models make the systems easier to understand. Models of very complex systems are often based on mathematical equations or computer simulations.
    ::这两个食物链代表着复杂系统中的能源流动,这些概念模型使得这些系统更容易理解,非常复杂的系统模型往往基于数学方程式或计算机模拟。

    Evaluating Models
    ::评价模式

    A person who develops a model must be able to recognize whether a model reflects reality. They must also be able to identify and work with differences between actual data and theory .
    ::开发模型的人必须能够认识到模型是否反映现实,还必须能够识别实际数据和理论之间的差异并与之合作。

    A model is evaluated mostly by how it reflects past observations of the phenomenon. Any model that is not consistent with reproducible observations must be modified or rejected. However, a fit to observed data alone is not enough for a model to be accepted as valid. Other factors important in evaluating a model include:
    ::对模型的评价主要取决于它如何反映过去对该现象的观察,任何与可复制的观察不一致的模型都必须加以修改或拒绝,但是,仅仅适合观察到的数据不足以使模型被接受为有效。

    • its ability to explain past observations,
      ::能够解释过去的意见,
    • its ability to predict future observations,
      ::预测未来观测的能力,
    • its ability to control events,
      ::它控制事件的能力,
    • the cost of its use, especially when used with other models,
      ::使用成本,特别是与其他模型一起使用的成本,
    • ease of use and how it looks.
      ::使用方便和看起来如何。

    Some examples of the different types of models that are used by science are shown in Figures and .
    ::科学使用的不同类型模型的一些实例在《数字》和《......》中列示。

    A computer model of wind patterns across the continental United States for 21 June, 2013. This model is used to forecast wind speeds and directions. Data on wind speed, direction, and related data are entered into a computer which then produces this simulation. This visual model is much easier for a person to understand than a large table of numbers.
    ::2013年6月21日全美国大陆风模式的计算机模型。 该模型用于预报风速和风向。 风速、方向和相关数据数据被输入计算机,然后生成模拟。 这个视觉模型比一个大数字表更容易让人理解。

    Biosphere 2 is an example of a very large three-dimensional model which biologists built to attempt to recreate a self-sustaining biome. To learn more about biomes and ecosystems, see Concept Ecology (Advanced) .
    ::生物圈2是一个非常大的三维模型的一个例子,生物学家为重塑一个可自我维持的生物群落而构建了这种模型。 要更多地了解生物群落和生态系统,请参见“概念生态学”(Advanced ) 。

    Theories as Models
    ::理论作为模型

    Scientific theories are constructed in order to explain, predict, and understand phenomena. This could include explanations for the movement of planets, weather patterns, or the behavior of . In many instances we are constructing models of reality. A theory makes generalizations about observations and is made up of a related set of ideas and models. The important difference between theories and models is that the first is explanatory as well as descriptive, while the second is only descriptive and predictive in a much more limited sense.
    ::科学理论的构建是为了解释、预测和理解现象。这可能包括解释行星的移动、天气模式或行为。在许多情况下,我们正在构建现实模型。一个理论对观察进行概括,由一组相关的想法和模型组成。 理论和模型之间的重要区别在于第一个理论和模型既具有解释性,也具有描述性,而第二个理论只是描述性和预测性,其意义非常有限。

    Model Organisms
    ::示范生物体

    A model organism is a non-human that is extensively studied to understand particular biological processes and concepts. These organisms are chosen because it is believed that discoveries made in the model organism will provide insight into the workings of other organisms, including humans. Model organisms range from single-celled to complex multi-cellular organisms. Even some are utilized as models, though technically a virus is not considered an organism.
    ::模型生物是一种非人类生物,为了解特定生物过程和概念进行了广泛研究;选择这些生物,是因为相信模型生物的发现有助于了解包括人类在内的其他生物的运作情况;模型生物从单细胞生物到复杂的多细胞生物,从单一细胞生物到复杂的多细胞生物,甚至有的被用作模型,尽管从技术上讲,病毒不被视为有机体。

    Table lists some common model organisms. All of these organisms listed have had their complete genomes sequenced.
    ::表格列出了一些常见的模型生物,所有所列生物都已对完整的基因组进行了排序。

    Organism Common Name
    Escherichia coli E. coli bacteria
    Eukaryote , unicellular Saccharomyces cerevisiae Yeast
    Eukaryote, multicellular

    Neurospora crassa
    ::Neurospora crassa 神经神经

    Caenorhabditis elegans
    ::Caenorhabidis 精英

    Drosophila melanogaster
    ::德罗索菲洛·梅拉诺加斯特

    Arabidopsis thaliana
    ::阿拉伯沙利亚纳

    bread
    ::面包面包

    nematode
    ::线虫

    fruit fly
    ::果蝇

    thale cress
    ::含色刻板

    Vertebrate

    Danio rerio
    ::达尼奥 rerio

    Mus musculus
    ::肌肉肌肉

    Xenopus laevis
    ::西埃诺普斯

    Macaca mulatta
    ::马卡卡马穆拉塔

    zebrafish
    ::斑马鱼

    house mouse
    ::家鼠鼠鼠鼠

    African clawed frog
    ::非洲爪青蛙

    rhesus monkey
    ::猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴猴

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Scientific models are representations of reality. They can be a physical, mathematical, or logical representation of a system, phenomenon, or process, and they allow scientists to investigate a phenomenon in a controlled way.
      ::科学模型是现实的体现。 它们可以是系统、现象或过程的物理、数学或逻辑代表,它们允许科学家以有控制的方式调查某一现象。
    • A simulation is a model that runs over time.
      ::模拟是随时间流逝的模型。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. What is a scientific model? Give two examples.
      ::什么是科学模型?举两个例子。
    2. Discuss the importance of scientific models.
      ::讨论科学模型的重要性。
    3. What is a model organism? Give three examples.
      ::什么是模型生物?请举三个例子。
    4. Why are simulations useful?
      ::为什么模拟有用?
    5. What are factors important to evaluating a model?
      ::哪些因素对评估模型十分重要?