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  • 相互依存 - 高级

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    What does it mean to be interdependent ?
    ::相互依存意味着什么?

    Do live alone, or do many live in communities with other organisms ? All species rely on other species in some way in order to survive. They may rely on other species for food , shelter or to help them reproduce. Here the bee is helping the flower spread its pollen . Species are not independent, they are interdependent.
    ::是否独居,还是许多人与其他生物群落一起生活?所有物种都以某种方式依赖其他物种生存。它们可以依赖其他物种来获取食物、栖息地或帮助繁殖。蜜蜂在这里帮助花朵传播花粉。物种并不独立,它们相互依存。

    Interdependence of Living Things
    ::生命的相互依存

    Biological interactions are the interactions between different organisms in an environment. In the natural world, no organism is cut off from its surroundings. Organisms are a part of their environment which is rich in living and non-living elements that interact with each other in some way. The interactions of an organism with its environment are vital to its survival, and the functioning of the as a whole.
    ::生物相互作用是环境内不同生物体之间的相互作用。在自然界,没有生物体与周围环境隔绝。生物体是其环境的一部分,其环境中丰富的生物和非生物元素以某种方式相互作用。生物体与其环境的相互作用对于生物体的生存和整体运作至关重要。

    These relationships can be categorized into many different classes. The interactions between two species do not necessarily need to be through direct contact. Due to the connected nature of ecosystems, species may affect each other through such relationships involving shared resources or common enemies.
    ::这两种关系可以分为许多不同类别,两种物种之间的相互作用不一定需要通过直接接触,由于生态系统的相互关联性质,物种可以通过涉及共有资源或共同敌人的关系相互影响。

    The term comes from a Greek word that means “living together.” Symbiosis can be used to describe various types of close relationships between organisms of different species, such as mutualism and commensalism , which are relationships in which neither organism is harmed. Sometimes the term symbiosis is used only for cases where both organisms benefit, sometimes it is used more generally to describe all kinds of close relationships, even when one organism is killed by another, as shown in Figure . Symbiosis can also be used to describe relationships where one organism lives on or in another, called parasitism , or when one organism kills and eats another organism, called . These relationships will be further described in Concept Ecology (Advanced) .
    ::共生关系可以用来描述不同物种生物之间各种类型的密切关系,例如互生关系和共生关系,这些关系是没有有机体受到伤害的关系,有时共生关系只用于两种生物都受益的情况,有时更一般地用来描述所有类型的密切关系,即使一个生物体被另一个生物体杀死,如图所示。共生关系也可以用来描述一个生物体在另一个生物体(称为寄生虫炎)或一个生物体杀死和吃掉另一个生物体(称为“生物体”),这些关系将在概念生态学(Advanced)中进一步说明。

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    There are many different types of symbiotic interactions between organisms. Clockwise from top left: Escherichia coli bacteria live inside your intestines in a mutualistic relationship: the bacteria produce Vitamin K for you, and they get their food from what you eat. Clownfish that live among the tentacles of sea anemones protect the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its predators (a special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles). Similar to the E. coli , this bee has a mutualistic relationship with the flower, the bee feeds from the flower, and the flower gets pollinated by the bee. Lions are predators that feed on other organisms such as this Cape buffalo.
    ::生物之间有多种不同的共生相互作用。 从左上方看,有多种不同的共生相互作用。 从左上方看:Escherichia coli细菌生活在你的肠内,有着一种相互的关系:细菌为你们生产维生素K,它们从你吃的东西中获取食物。生活在海葵触角中的长尾鱼可以保护蚂蚁免受吃醋鱼的侵食,而蚂蚁的刺痛触角又可以保护小丑鱼免受食肉动物的侵食(对小丑鱼的一种特殊的肌肉可以保护它免受触摸的触角的侵扰 ) 。 与E. Coli相似的是,这只蜜蜂与花、花的蜜喂养以及蜜被蜜蜂所授的花有相互性的关系。 狮子是捕食其他生物的掠食者,例如这个水牛角。

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    A flock of starlings looks out, before searching for parasites on a red deer stag.
    ::在寻找红鹿鹿鹿鹿的寄生虫之前 一群小星群会小心翼翼的

     

     

    is as an interaction between organisms or species, for the same resources such as , food, or hunting grounds in an environment, shown in Figure . Eventually, the species that is less able to compete for resources will either adapt or die out. According to evolutionary theory , competition for resources plays an important role in .
    ::作为生物体或物种之间的相互作用,对于同一资源,如图中所示的环境食物或狩猎场。 最终,较不能够竞争资源的物种要么会适应,要么会消亡。 根据进化理论,对资源的竞争在其中起着重要作用。

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    Competition between organisms and species. These male deer are competing for females during rutting (mating) season. Trees in this forest are in competition for light.
    ::生物和物种之间的竞争,这些雄鹿在采摘(采摘)季节争夺雌鹿,森林中的树木在争夺光线。

    that eat decomposing organic material also have an important interaction with the environment. They help to decompose dead matter and assist with the recycling of nutrients . By burying and eating dung, dung beetles, such as the one shown in Figure , improve nutrient cycling and soil structure. They make the dead organic matter available to that break it down even further.
    ::食用腐蚀有机物的食用腐蚀有机物也与环境有着重要的相互作用,它们有助于分解死亡物质,帮助回收养分。它们通过掩埋和食用粪便和甲虫,如图中所示的甲虫,可以改善养分循环和土壤结构。它们可以让死有机物进一步分解。

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    Dung beetles have important interactions with the environment, through which many other organisms benefit.
    ::甲虫与环境有着重要的相互作用,许多其他生物也通过这种相互作用受益。

    Organisms are not independent, they are interdependent . They cannot live alone; they need other organisms to survive. The same is true for species. All species need other species to survive.
    ::生物不是独立的,而是相互依存的。它们不能单独生活;它们需要其他生物生存。物种也是如此。所有物种都需要其他物种生存。

    Levels of Organization
    ::组织级别

    In studying how organisms interact with each other, biologists often find it helpful to classify the organisms and interactions into levels of organization. Similar to the way an organism itself has different levels of organization, the ways in which organisms interact with their environment and each other can also be divided into levels of organization. For example:
    ::在研究生物如何相互作用时,生物学家往往发现将生物体和相互作用分类为组织层次有帮助。

    The includes all living things within all of their environments. It includes every part of the environment where life exists, from the upper reaches of the atmosphere to the top few meters of soil, to the bottoms of the oceans. An ecosystem is made up of the relationships among smaller groups of organisms with each other, and with their environment. Scientists often speak of the interrelatedness of living things, because, according to evolutionary theory, organisms adapt to their environment, and they must also adapt to other organisms in that environment.
    ::生态系统由小生物群体彼此之间以及与其环境的关系组成。 科学家们经常谈论生命事物的相互关联性,因为根据进化理论,生物体适应其环境,他们也必须适应该环境中的其他生物。

    A community is made up of the relationships between groups of different species. For example, the communities consist of rabbits, coyotes, snakes, , mice and such plants as sahuaro cactus, ocotillo, and creosote bush. Community structure can be disturbed by such dynamics as fire, human activity, and over- .
    ::一个社区由不同物种群体之间的关系组成,例如,由兔子、小野狼、蛇、小鼠和植物(如sahuaro actus、ocotillo和creotocate bush)组成的社区,社区结构可能受到火灾、人类活动等动态的干扰。

    A population is a group of individuals of a single species that mate and interact with one another in a limited geographic area. For example, a field of flowers which is separated from another field by a hill or other area where none of these flowers occur.
    ::一个种群是由在有限的地理区域内相互交配和互动的单一物种的个体组成的群体,例如,一块花地由山地或没有这些花地的其他区域从另一块田地分离开来。

    It is thus possible to study biology at many levels, from collections of organisms or communities, to the inner workings of a (organelle). More about the interactions of organisms will be discussed in Concept Ecology (Advanced) .
    ::因此,可以在许多层次上研究生物学,从生物或生物群落的集合到(有机体)的内在作用,更多关于生物相互作用的问题将在概念生态学(先进)中讨论。

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    This picture shows the levels of organization in nature, from the individual organism to the biosphere.
    ::这一图示显示了从个体生物到生物圈的自然组织水平。

    The Diversity of Life
    ::生命的多样性

    Evolutionary theory and the give us the basis for how and why organisms relate to each other. The diversity of life found on Earth today is the result of 4 billion years of evolution. Some of this diversity is shown in Figure . The origin of life is not completely understood by science , though limited evidence suggests that life may already have been well-established a few 100 million years after Earth formed. Until approximately 600 million years ago, all life was made up of single-celled organisms.
    ::进化理论和给我们提供生物如何和为什么相互联系的基础。今天地球上发现的生命多样性是40亿年进化的结果。图中显示了其中的一些多样性。生命的起源没有被科学完全理解,尽管有限的证据表明生命在地球形成后已有1亿年的历史。直到大约6亿年前,所有生命都由单细胞生物组成。

    The level of found in the suggests that the last few million years include the period of greatest biodiversity in the Earth's history. However, not all scientists support this view, since there is a lot of uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of more recent fossil-containing rock layers. Some researchers argue that modern biodiversity is not much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago. Estimates of the present global species diversity vary from 5 million to 30 million species, with a best estimate of somewhere near 10 million species. All living organisms are classified into one of the six kingdoms: Archaebacteria (Archaea), Eubacteria (Bacteria), Protista (Protists), , Plantae (Plants), and Animalia (Animals).
    ::研究者认为,现代生物多样性与3亿年前的生物多样性没有多大差别。对目前全球物种多样性的估计从500万到3000万种不等,对近1 000万种物种的估计最准确。所有生物体都分为六大王国之一:Archaebacteria(Archaea)、Eubacteria(Bacteria)、Protista(Protista (Protister)、Plantae(Plantae (Plants))和动物(动物)。

    New species are regularly discovered and many, though already discovered, are not yet classified. One estimate states that about 40 percent of freshwater from South America are not yet classified. T he animal is just a tiny portion of the total diversity of life. Every year, scientists discover the existence of many hundreds more and bacteria than were previously known.  Just  a few of the many members of the animal kingdom are shown in Figure . More about the diversity of living creatures will be discussed throughout numerous concepts.
    ::新物种经常被发现,许多已经发现的物种尚未分类。 一种估计指出,南美40%的淡水尚未分类。 动物只是生命多样性的一小部分。 科学家每年都发现比以前已知的多数百种和细菌的存在。 图中仅显示了动物王国众多成员中的少数人。关于生物多样性的更多内容将在众多概念中讨论。

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    Animal diversity. This figure shows just a fraction of the diversity of life. The diversity of organisms found in the five kingdoms of life, dwarf the number of organisms found in the animal kingdom. The other kingdoms of life are Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, and Plantae.
    ::动物多样性:本图仅显示了生命多样性的一小部分。在五大生命王国中发现的生物多样性比动物王国中发现的生物数量要小。其他生命王国是尤巴切里、阿切巴蒂亚、普罗蒂斯塔、芬吉和普朗泰。

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • The interactions of an organism with its environment are vital to its survival, and the functioning of the ecosystem as a whole.
      ::有机体与环境的相互作用对于其生存和整个生态系统的运作至关重要。
    • An ecosystem consists of the relationships among smaller groups of organisms with each other, and with their environment.
      ::生态系统包括较小的生物群体相互间的关系及其与环境的关系。
    • Symbiosis can be used to describe various types of close relationships between organisms of different species.
      ::共生关系可用于描述不同物种生物之间各种类型的密切关系。
    • Competition is as an interaction between organisms or species for the same resources in an environment.
      ::竞争是生物体或物种在环境中为同一资源而相互竞争的一种形式。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. What are biological interactions?
      ::什么是生物互动?
    2. What is the difference between mutualism and commensalism?
      ::相互主义和共产主义有什么区别?
    3. What is predation?
      ::什么是掠夺?
    4. What are the levels of organization that organisms interact with their environment and explain them?
      ::生物体与环境相互作用并解释其环境的组织级别是多少?
    5. Give an example of how you are interdependent with  another organism.
      ::举个例子来说明你是如何与另一个生物相互依存的。