9.5 生物技术和医学-高级
Section outline
-
Is this possible?
::有可能吗?Of course is much smaller than shown here and you cannot see it in a test tube. But you can manipulate and study DNA. and its associated techniques have made DNA-based biomedical research and analysis fairly routine.
::当然比这里所显示的要小得多,你无法在测试管里看到。但你可以操纵和研究DNA。其相关技术使得基于DNA的生物医学研究和分析相当例行。Applications of DNA Technology: Medicine
::DNA应用技术:医学Biotechnology and DNA technology could be considered synonymous. So much of biotechnology is DNA based. Remember that biotechnology is technology based on biological applications. Since the completion of the , the data produced from the project and the tools and technologies associated with the project have led to numerous .
::生物技术和DNA技术可以被视为同义词,生物技术中有许多是以DNA为基础的。 记住生物技术是基于生物应用的技术。 自该项目完成以来,该项目产生的数据和与该项目有关的工具和技术已经产生了许多。As discussed in the DNA Technology: The Human Genome Project (Advanced) concept, the Human Genome Project has opened up many avenues to take advantage of what we know about our genome in order to help us. Many of these possibilities are medically related. Others will be legally related. And yet still other uses of DNA technology include those involving other genomes, especially in and the food sciences. However, it is the medical possibilities of biotechnology that most people associate with helping humans.
::正如DNA技术中所讨论的:人类基因组项目(高级)概念,人类基因组项目开辟了许多渠道,利用我们对基因组的了解来帮助我们。其中许多可能性与医学相关。其他可能性也将与法律相关。但DNA技术的其他用途包括涉及其他基因组的用途,特别是在食品科学方面和食品科学方面。然而,大多数人认为生物技术的医学可能性与帮助人类有关。Gene Therapy
::基因治疗Understanding and curing genetic diseases is the ultimate goal of human geneticists. As discussed in the Human Genetics : Diagnosis and Treatment (Advanced) concept, is the insertion of a new gene into an individual’s and tissues to treat a disease, replacing a mutant disease-causing with a normal, non-mutant allele. Of course, the findings of the Human Genome Project are significant in determining the disease-causing alleles. Geneticists must know which are mutant alleles and which are non-mutant or "normal" alleles. They must also be able to identify alleles that are not just associated with a particular disease phenotype , but cause a disease phenotype. And of course, scientists must develop and test the technology to replace mutant alleles.
::理解和治疗遗传疾病是人类遗传学家的最终目标。 正如人类遗传学中所讨论的:诊断和治疗(高级)概念,就是在个人和组织中插入一种新的基因来治疗疾病,用正常的非变异性异种病菌来取代由变异体引起的疾病。 当然,人类基因组项目的发现对确定疾病致病的异种非常重要。 遗传学家必须知道哪些是变异异异异种,哪些是非变异或“正常”异种。 他们还必须能够识别不仅与某种特定疾病苯型有关,而是造成一种疾病苯型的异种。 当然,科学家必须开发并测试替代变异异异异异异体的技术。Recombinant Insulin
::重组胰岛素In the 1920s, there was no known way to produce insulin , which was needed by people to remove excess sugar from the bloodstream. People with either lack insulin, produce low levels of insulin, or are resistant to insulin, and thus they may need external insulin to control glucose levels. This problem was solved, at least temporarily, when it was found that insulin from a pig’s pancreas could be used in humans. This method was the primary solution for diabetes until recently. The problem with insulin from pigs was that there were not enough pigs to provide the quantities of insulin needed. Scientists needed to devise another way to produce insulin. This led to one of the biggest breakthroughs in technology: the of the human insulin gene.
::20世纪20年代,没有生产胰岛素的已知方法,因为人们需要胰岛素来从血液中去除多余的糖。 缺乏胰岛素的人、生产低水平的胰岛素的人、或者抗胰岛素的人,因此他们可能需要外部胰岛素来控制葡萄糖水平。 这个问题在发现猪的胰岛素可以用于人类时至少暂时解决了。 直到最近,这个方法还是糖尿病的主要解决办法。 猪的胰岛素问题在于没有足够的猪来提供所需的胰岛素数量。 科学家需要另外设计一种方法来生产胰岛素。 这导致了技术的最大突破之一:人类胰岛素基因。By methods discussed the DNA Technology: Gene Cloning (Advanced) concept, the specific gene sequence that codes for human insulin was introduced into the E. coli . The transformed gene altered the genetic makeup of the bacterial cells, such that in a 24 hour period, billions of E. coli containing the human insulin gene resulted. Once the recombinant human was isolated from the bacteria, enough insulin was available to be administered to patients.
::通过讨论DNA技术的方法,讨论了DNA技术:基因克隆(高级)概念,人类胰岛素编码的具体基因序列被引入E.大肠杆菌。变异基因改变了细菌细胞的基因构成,因此在24小时内,产生了数十亿种含有人类胰岛素基因的E.大肠杆菌。一旦重新组合的人类从细菌中分离出来,就有足够的胰岛素用于治疗病人。Though the production of human insulin by recombinant DNA procedures is an extremely significant event, many other aspects of DNA technology are beginning to become reality. In medicine, modern biotechnology provides significant applications in such areas as pharmacogenomics , genetic testing (and prenatal diagnosis), and gene therapy. These applications use our knowledge of biology to improve our health and our lives. Many of these medical applications are based on the findings of the Human Genome Project.
::尽管通过重组DNA程序生产人体胰岛素是一个极其重要的事件,但DNA技术的许多其他方面正开始成为现实,在医学领域,现代生物技术在药理基因学、遗传学检验(和产前诊断)和基因疗法等领域提供了重要的应用,这些应用利用我们生物学知识改善我们的健康和生活,其中许多医学应用是基于人类基因组项目的结果。Genetically Engineering Bacteria to Produce a Human Protein. Bacteria can be genetically engineered to produce a human protein, such as a cytokine. A cytokine is a small protein that helps fight infections.
::细菌可以进行基因改造,生产人体蛋白质,如细胞基素。细胞基素是一种小蛋白,有助于防治感染。Pharmacogenomics
::药用基因组学Currently, millions of individuals with high cholesterol take a similar type of drug , known as a statin. The drug, an inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase (3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase), the rate limiting in cholesterol biosynthesis, decreases blood levels of cholesterol by induce the expression of low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptors in the liver . The increased levels of the LDL-receptors stimulate the catabolism of plasma LDL, removing cholesterol from plasma, which is an important determinant of atherosclerosis . You may know of people who take a statin to help with their cholesterol levels. However, these drugs probably work slightly differently in many of those people. In some, it lowers their cholesterol significantly; in others it may lower it only moderately; and in some, it may have no significant effect at all. (Luckily for those individuals, there are multiple versions of the statins, so different drugs can be tested to find the proper combination for that individual.) Why the difference? Because of the genetic background of all people; the different single nucleotide polymorphisms that make us all different. Pharmacogenomics, a combination of pharmacology and genomics (the study of the genome) that refers to the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics, may explain and simplify this problem.
::目前,数以百万计的高胆固醇患者服用类似类型的药物,称为 Statin。该药物是HMG-CoA的抑制剂,是HMG-CoA的抑制剂,是HMG-CoA的抑制剂,是HMG-CoA的抑制剂(3-Hydrox-3-甲基-glutary-CoA的抑制剂 ) ,在胆固醇生物合成中限制,通过诱使肝脏中低密度脂蛋白(LDL)受体的表达,降低胆固醇的血液水平,降低胆固醇的血量。LDL受体的增加刺激了血浆LDL的代谢,从血浆中除去胆固醇,而胆固醇是止血硬化症的重要决定因素。你可能知道那些服用这种血清来帮助其胆固醇水平的人。然而,这些药物在这些人中可能作用略有不同。在肝脏中会降低胆固醇的含量;在另一些情况下,它可能只是低度;在一些情况下,它可能不会产生显著的影响。 (对于这些人来说,有多种版本的血原研究, ) ,这是指这些种的基因的基因的基因的基因的基因是不同的基因的基因, 解释,因此可以被测试为不同的基因的基因的基因的基因的不同。Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his or her body’s response to drugs. In other words, pharmacogenomics will lead to the design and production of drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup. Pharmacogenomics has applications in illnesses such as , cardiovascular disorders, depression, attention deficit disorders, , asthma , and diabetes, among others.
::药物基因组学是研究一个人的遗传遗产如何影响他或她的身体对药物的反应的研究。 换句话说,药物基因组学将导致适合每个人基因构成的药物的设计和生产。 药物基因组学在诸如心血管紊乱、抑郁、注意力不足、哮喘和糖尿病等疾病中都有应用。Pharmacogenomics will result in the following benefits:
::药用基因组学将产生以下效益:-
of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies will be able to create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and
molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize the beneficial effects of the medicine, but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
::制药公司将利用药用基因组学创造基于与特定基因和疾病相关的蛋白质、酶和分子的药物。 这些定制药品不仅承诺最大限度地发挥药物的有益作用,还承诺减少对附近健康细胞的破坏。 -
More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his or her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will allow doctors to prescribe the proper levels of the medicine, allowing the medicine to have optimal results.
::更精确地确定适当药物剂量的方法。 了解病人的遗传学将使医生能够确定他或她的身体能在多大程度上加工和代谢药物。 这将使医生能够开出适当水平的药品,让药物产生最佳效果。 -
Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. Once the genes and proteins associated with a disease are known, the discovery of new medicines will be made easier using these genes and proteins as targets for the medicine. In addition to creating much more beneficial medicines, this could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.
::药物发现和批准过程的改进:一旦了解与疾病有关的基因和蛋白质,新药物的发现将更容易使用这些基因和蛋白质作为药物的目标。 除了创造更有益的药物外,这可以大大缩短药物发现过程。 -
Better
vaccines
. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by
organisms
transformed with DNA sequences from an
antigen
. These vaccines will trigger the
immune response
without the risks of infection. They will be capable of being engineered to carry several strains of
at once, combining several vaccines into one.
::更好的疫苗:更安全的疫苗可由通过抗原DNA序列转化而成的生物体设计和生产。这些疫苗将引发免疫反应,而不会带来感染的风险。它们将能够被设计成同时携带几种菌株,将几种疫苗合并为一种。
Cytochrome P450 Genes
::Cytochrome P450 基因There are several known genes which are largely responsible for variances in drug metabolism and response among humans. The most common are the cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes, which encode enzymes that influence the metabolism of more than 75% of current prescription drugs. CYP450 proteins are hemoproteins, belonging to the superfamily of proteins containing a heme cofactor. Often, these proteins form part of multi-component electron transfer chains, called P450-containing systems. The letter in P450 represents the word pigment, as these enzymes are red because of their heme group. The number 450 reflects the wavelength of the absorption maximum of the enzyme. Humans have 57 genes (and more than 59 pseudogenes) divided among 18 families of cytochrome P450 genes and 43 subfamilies. Some examples are shown in Table . CYP genes and enzymes are designated with the abbreviation CYP, followed by a number indicating the gene family, a capital letter indicating the subfamily, and another numeral for the individual gene.
::有几种已知基因,这些基因是造成药物新陈代谢和人类反应差异的主要原因。最常见的是细胞色素P450(CYP)基因,这些基因对影响现有处方药75%以上新陈代谢的酶进行编码。CYP450蛋白是血蛋白,属于含有热同源物的蛋白质的超级家族。这些蛋白通常构成多种成分电子转移链的一部分,称为P450含元素系统。P450中的字母表示色素,因为这些酶是红色的,因为它们的Heme组。数字450反映了酶吸收的最大波长。人类有57个基因(和59个以上的假基因),分为18个细胞色P450基因和43个亚种。一些例子在表格中显示。CYP基因和酶与缩写CYP(缩写为CYP)有关,然后用数字表示基因家庭、显示子基因的资本字母,以及个人的其他数字。CYP Genes and Alleles Family Function Members Names CYP1 drug and steroid (especially estrogen) metabolism 3 subfamilies, 3 genes, 1 pseudogene CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP1B1 CYP2 drug and steroid metabolism 13 subfamilies, 16 genes, 16 pseudogenes CYP2A6, CYP2A7, CYP2A13, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C18, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, CYP2F1, CYP2J2, CYP2R1, CYP2S1, CYP2U1, CYP2W1 CYP3 drug and steroid (including testosterone) metabolism 1 subfamily, 4 genes, 2 pseudogenes CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP3A7, CYP3A43 CYP4 arachidonic acid or fatty acid metabolism 6 subfamilies, 12 genes, 10 pseudogenes CYP4A11, CYP4A22, CYP4B1, CYP4F2, CYP4F3, CYP4F8, CYP4F11, CYP4F12, CYP4F22, CYP4V2, CYP4X1, CYP4Z1 CYP7 bile acid biosynthesis 7-alpha hydroxylase of steroid 2 subfamilies, 2 genes CYP7A1, CYP7B1 CYP11 steroid biosynthesis 2 subfamilies, 3 genes CYP11A1, CYP11B1, CYP11B2 CYP21 steroid biosynthesis 2 subfamilies, 1 gene, 1 pseudogene CYP21A2 CYP24 vitamin D degradation 1 subfamily, 1 gene CYP24A1 CYP46 cholesterol 24-hydroxylase 1 subfamily, 1 gene CYP46A1 How are these CYP genes important in individualized medicine ? These genes, like all genes, have multiple alleles. As these enzymes are involved in drug metabolism, different alleles can have different effectiveness at that metabolism.
::这些CYP基因在个性化医学中如何重要?这些基因与所有基因一样,具有多重异变。 由于这些酶涉及药物新陈代谢,不同的异变在新陈代谢中可以产生不同的效果。For example, the CYP1A1 gene has 13 known alleles, known as CYP1A1*1, CYP1A1*2A, CYP1A1*2B, CYP1A1*3, CYP1A1*4 and so on. CYP1A1*1 is the wild type allele, and the others are usually due to single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP). The CYP2D6 gene has over 100 known alleles. CYP2D6*1A is the wild type allele and the others are variations on the *1A sequence. Some have a single SNP change, while other alleles have multiple base changes. There are six separate CYP2D6*1 alleles within this gene family.
::例如,CYP1A1基因有13种已知所有基因,称为CYP1A1*1、CYP1A1*2A、CYP1A1*2B、CYP1A1*3、CYP1A1A1*4等等。CYP1A1*1是野生基因,其他基因通常由单核酸多形态(SNP)产生。CYP2D6基因有100多个已知所有基因。CYP2D6*1A是野生所有基因,其他是*1A序列的变异。有些有单一的SNP变化,而其他所有基因则有多种基数变化。在这个基因大家庭中,有6个单独的CYP2D6*1所有基因。If a person receives one *1 allele each from his/her mother and his/her father to code for the CYP2D6 gene, then that person is considered to have an extensive metabolizer (EM) phenotype. An extensive metabolizer is considered the normal phenotype with average enzyme activity levels. Other CYP metabolism phenotypes include: intermediate, ultra-rapid, and poor. These phenotypes are due to allelic variation among the CYP genes. However, with myriad possibilities of allelic combinations, this developing individualized medicine guidelines is still well under development.
::如果一个人从他/她的母亲和父亲那里每人得到一个*1Alle,以编码CYP2D6基因,那么此人就被视为具有广泛的代谢物(EM)苯型,一种广泛的代谢物被认为是具有平均酶活性水平的正常的苯型,其他CYP代谢物型包括:中间、超强和贫弱。这些苯型是由于CYP基因之间的相异。然而,由于多种可能的代谢物组合,这种发展个体化的医学准则仍在开发之中。CYP2D6 Allele and Enzyme Activity Allele CYP2D6 Activity Metabolizer Phenotype CYP2D6*1 normal extensive CYP2D6*2 increased ultra-rapid CYP2D6*3 no activity poor CYP2D6*4 no activity poor CYP2D6*5 no activity poor CYP2D6*9 decreased intermediate CYP2D6*10 decreased intermediate CYP2D6*17 decreased intermediate KQED: Pharmacogenomics
::KQED: 药用基因组学We know that, thanks to our genome, each of us is phenotypically unique. Some of those differences are obvious, like eye and hair color, but others are not obvious at all, such as how our bodies react to medication. As discussed above, the CYP450 alleles have plenty to do with how each of us react to drugs. Researchers are beginning to look at how to individualize medical treatments, based on our genetic profiles. Some of the biggest breakthroughs have been in cancer treatment. Personalized medicine is a drug treatment regimen individually developed to an individual based on that person's genetic profile.
::我们知道,由于我们的基因组,我们每个人都是独一无二的。其中一些差异是显而易见的,比如眼睛和头发的颜色,但其他差异则并不明显,比如我们的身体对药物的反应。如上所述,CYP450Alleles与我们每个人对药物的反应有很大关系。研究人员开始研究如何根据我们的基因特征将医疗个人化。一些最大的突破是在癌症治疗方面。个性化医学是个人根据个人基因特征单独开发的药物治疗方案。Genetic Testing and Prenatal Diagnosis
::遗传检测和产前诊断Let's propose a hypothetical situation: unfortunately, members of your family are predisposed to develop a debilitating genetic disease. You and your spouse want to have a baby, but you want to know the likelihood of the child developing the disease.
::让我们提出一种假设的情况:不幸的是,你的家庭成员都倾向于发展一种衰弱的遗传疾病。你和你的配偶想要孩子,但你想知道孩子发展这种疾病的可能性。This scenario could happen to anyone. As we learn more and more about disease causing genes, it will become easier to test for in those genes. Currently, is there any way to determine if a baby will develop a disease due to a known mutation? Is it possible to screen for a mutation in a developing baby? The answer to both those questions is…yes.
::这种情形可能会发生在任何人身上。随着我们越来越多地了解导致基因的疾病,在这些基因中进行测试将变得更加容易。目前,是否有办法确定婴儿是否会因为已知的突变而发展出疾病?能否在发育中的婴儿中检测突变?这两个问题的答案是:是的。Genetic testing involves the direct examination of DNA sequences. A scientist scans, by any number of methods, a patient’s DNA for mutated sequences. Genetic testing can be used to:
::基因测试包括直接检查DNA序列。科学家用任何多种方法扫描病人的DNA,用于变异序列。基因测试可用于:-
Diagnose a disease.
::诊断出一种疾病。 -
Confirm a diagnosis.
::确认诊断结果 -
Provide information about the course of a disease.
::请提供有关疾病趋势的资料。 -
Confirm the existence of a disease.
::确认疾病的存在。 -
Predict the risk of future development of a disease in otherwise healthy individuals or their children.
::预测一种疾病在本来健康的个人或其子女中未来发展的风险。 -
Identify carriers (unaffected individuals who are heterozygous for a
recessive
disease gene).
::查明携带者(感染后遗症基因的异体兹古斯人)。 -
Perform prenatal diagnostic screening.
::进行产前诊断检查。 -
Perform newborn screening.
::进行新生儿检查。
Consultations with human geneticists and genetic counselors are an important first step in genetic testing. They will most likely prescribe some sort of prenatal screening (see the Human Genetics: Diagnosis and Treatment (Advanced) concept). Prenatal screening (also known as prenatal diagnosis or prenatal testing) is the testing for diseases or conditions in a fetus or embryo before it is born. Methods may involve amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling to remove fetal cells. DNA can be isolated from these cells and analyzed. If the mutation that results in the phenotype is known, that specific base can be analyzed, either through restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis or, more likely, through and DNA sequence analysis. As it is the baby’s DNA that is being analyzed, the analysis will determine if the developing baby will have the mutation and develop the phenotype, or not have the mutation. Parents can then be informed of the of the baby developing the disease.
::与人类遗传学家和遗传顾问的咨询是遗传测试的重要第一步,它们很可能规定某种产前检查(见人类遗传学:诊断和治疗(高级)概念);产前检查(又称产前诊断或产前检查)是胎儿或胚胎出生前的疾病或状况的检测;方法可能涉及羊脑细胞或肉毒杆菌取样,以去除胎儿细胞。DNA可以从这些细胞中分离和分析。如果已知导致苯型的突变,可以通过限制碎片长度的多形态分析或通过DNA序列分析来分析具体基数。由于正在分析婴儿的DNA,分析将确定发育中的婴儿是否将发生突变并发展苯型,或者没有突变。然后可以告知父母婴儿是否正在发展这种疾病。In human genetics, preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PIGD) is genetic analysis performed on embryos prior to implantation . PIGD is considered an alternative to prenatal diagnosis. Its main advantage is that it avoids selective termination , as the method makes it highly likely that the baby will be free of the disease in question. In PIGD, in vitro is used to obtain embryos for analysis. DNA is isolated from developing embryos prior to implantation, and specific genetic loci are screened for mutations, usually using PCR based analysis. Embryos that lack the specific mutation can then be implanted into the mother, thereby guaranteeing that the developing baby will not have the specific mutation analyzed for (and thus not have the disease associated with that mutation).
::在人类遗传学中,植入前的基因诊断(PIGD)是植入前对胚胎进行的基因分析。PIGD被认为是产前诊断的替代方法,其主要优点是避免选择性终止,因为这种方法使婴儿极有可能没有有关疾病。在PIGD中,体外植入用于获得胚胎分析。DNA从植入前的胚胎中分离出来,并且通常使用PCR分析法对特定的基因地貌进行突变筛选。缺乏特定突变的胚胎可以植入母体内,从而保证发育中的婴儿不会接受特定变异分析(因此没有与该变异相关的疾病 ) 。KQED: Synthetic Biology
::KQED: 合成生物学Can biotechnology be extended to develop new technologies based on biological systems? Imagine living cells acting as memory devices, biofuels brewing from yeast, or a light receptor taken from that makes photographs on a plate of bacteria. The new biotechnology field of Synthetic Biology is making biological systems easier to engineer, so that new functions can be derived and developed from living systems.
::生物技术能否推广到发展以生物系统为基础的新技术?想象活细胞作为记忆装置、从酵母中酿造的生物燃料或光受体使照片出现在细菌盘子上。 合成生物学的新生物技术领域正在使生物系统更容易工程化,从而能够从生命系统产生和发展新的功能。Summary
::摘要-
In medicine, modern biotechnology provides significant applications in such areas as pharmacogenomics, genetic testing (prenatal diagnosis), and gene therapy.
::在医学方面,现代生物技术在药理基因组学、基因检验(产前诊断)和基因疗法等领域提供了重要的应用。 -
Pharmacogenomics, the combination of pharmacology and genomics, is the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics.
::药理学和基因组学相结合的药理学和基因组学是对药物和遗传学之间关系的研究。 -
Pharmacogenomics will result in the following benefits:
-
Development of tailor-made medicines.
::开发量身定制的药品。 -
More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages.
::确定适当药物剂量的更准确方法。 -
Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process.
::药物发现和批准程序的改进。 -
Better vaccines.
::更好的疫苗。
::药用基因组学将产生以下效益: 开发定制药品; 更准确地确定适当药物剂量的方法; 改进药物发现和批准程序; 改进疫苗。 -
Development of tailor-made medicines.
-
Genetic testing involves the direct examination of DNA sequences.
::基因检验包括直接检查DNA序列。 -
Genetic testing can be used to: diagnose a disease; confirm a diagnosis; provide prognostic information about the course of a disease; confirm the existence of a disease; predict the risk of future development of a disease in otherwise healthy individuals or their children; screen for carriers (unaffected individuals who are heterozygous for a disease gene); perform prenatal diagnostic screening; and perform newborn screening.
::遗传检测可用于:诊断疾病;确认诊断;提供关于疾病过程的预知性信息;确认疾病的存在;预测疾病在本来健康的个人或其子女中未来发展的风险;筛查携带者(感染疾病基因的感染者);进行产前诊断筛查;进行新生儿筛查。
Review
::回顾-
What is gene therapy?
::什么是基因疗法? -
What was the problem with insulin from pigs? How did scientists solve this problem?
::猪的胰岛素有什么问题?科学家如何解决这个问题? -
What are some of the benefits of pharmacogenomics?
::药理工程学有什么好处? -
Describe how pharmacogenomics will result in specialty medicines.
::描述药用基因组学如何产生特殊药品。 -
What are potential uses of genetic testing?
::基因检验的潜在用途是什么?
Explore More
::探索更多 -
of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies will be able to create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and
molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize the beneficial effects of the medicine, but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
