14.9 动物的沟通行为 -- -- 先进
Section outline
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What has a built-in communication device?
::什么是内置通讯装置?The rattle of this rattlesnake is used to communicate with other . The rattle is a warning device for predatory that might be a threat to the rattlesnake. It produces a signal to drive them away.
::这个响尾蛇的响尾蛇用来与其他人交流。响尾蛇是猎食的警示装置,可能对响尾蛇构成威胁。它发出一个信号,将它们驱走。Communication
::通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯A necessary condition for cooperation among members of a species is communication. Communication — in the context of — refers to any process or behavior that allows organisms to send and receive information. When you think of communication, you many think of human language, but communication is not limited to humans. Every transfer of information between living organisms is an example of communication.
::一种物种成员之间合作的必要条件是交流,在联系方面,交流是指允许生物体发送和接收信息的任何过程或行为,在考虑交流时,许多人会想到人类的语言,但交流不仅限于人类,生物体之间的信息传递都是交流的范例。Animal communication most often takes place between members of the same species. This is called intraspecies (“within species”) communication. Many examples of intraspecies communication are described below. Animal communication may also take place between members of different species. This is called interspecies (“between species”) communication. An example of interspecies communication is the wriggling “worm” that protrudes from the head of an anglerfish (see the Aquatic Biomes : (Advanced) concept). It serves as a lure to other species of . When they try to eat the “worm,” they are captured by the anglerfish. The rattle of a rattlesnake is also an example of interspecies communication. The rattle warns potential predators to stay away from the rattlesnake, which has a poisonous bite. Intraspecies communication is demonstrated by the waggle dance of the honeybees, discussed in the Animal Behavior: Innate (Advanced) concept.
::动物间交流最经常发生在同一物种成员之间。这称为物种内部交流(“物种内部”),下文介绍物种内部交流的许多例子。动物间交流也可能发生在不同物种成员之间。这称为物种间交流(“物种之间”)。物种间交流的一个实例是从角度鱼头部跳出的刺状“虫”(见水生生物群高级)概念)。它起到诱饵作用,吸引其他物种。当它们试图吃“虫”时,它们被角鱼捕获。响尾蛇的响铃也是物种间交流的一个例子。响尾蛇警告潜在的掠食者远离有有毒咬痕的响尾蛇。动物贝哈维尔讨论的“蜜蜂之舞 ” , 显示了物种间交流。
Auditory Communication
::监听沟通The rattle of a rattlesnake is an example of auditory communication. Auditory communication is the use of sounds to send and receive information. Auditory communication is particularly important in . They use sounds to communicate warnings, attract mates, signal other birds to flock together, and for other important purposes. Some of the sounds made by birds are called birdsongs. Birdsongs are relatively long and melodic and are always more or less the same in a given species (see the Understanding Bird Song Table in the Animal Behavior: Introduction (Advanced) concept). Many other species also use auditory communication:
::听觉交流是听觉交流的一个例子。听觉交流是使用声音发送和接收信息。听觉交流在......中特别重要。它们使用声音来传递警告、吸引伴侣、信号其他鸟类聚集在一起,并为了其他重要目的。鸟儿发出的声音中有些被称为鸟鸣。鸟鸣相对较长,多语,在特定物种中总是或多或少相同(见动物行为中的理解鸟歌表:介绍(高级)概念)。其他许多物种也使用听觉交流:-
Monkeys cry out a warning when a predator is near. The warning call gives other members of the troop a chance to escape. Vervet monkeys have different calls, depending on the predator.
::当捕食者临近的时候,猴子会发出警告。警告电话让部队其他成员有机会逃跑。动猴有不同的呼叫,视捕食者而定。 -
Bullfrogs croak to attract female
frogs
as mates. In some frog species, the sounds can be heard up to a mile away.
::在一些青蛙物种中,声音可以在一英里外听到。 -
Gibbons use calls to mark their territory. This helps to keep potential competitors away. A paired male and female and even their young may make the calls together.
::Gibbons用电话标记他们的领地,这有助于将潜在的竞争对手拒之门外。一对男女,甚至他们的年轻人,可以一起发出呼吁。
Visual Communication
::视觉通信In addition to calls and other sounds, gibbons and many other animals use visual communication. Visual communication involves signals that can be seen. Visual communication may include gestures, facial expressions, and body postures. Like gibbons, most other use visual communication. For example, chimpanzees communicate a threat by raising their arms, slapping the ground, or staring directly at another chimpanzee. The “grin” on the face of the young chimpanzee shown in Figure actually communicates fear and submission. The “fear grin” is used by young chimpanzees when approaching a dominant male in their troop.
::除了电话和其他声音之外,长袍和许多其他动物还使用视觉通讯,视觉通讯涉及可以看见的信号,视觉通讯可能包括手势、面部表情和身体姿势,如长袍,其他大多数使用视觉通讯,例如黑猩猩通过举起手臂、拍打地面或直接盯着另一只黑猩猩来传达威胁,图中显示的年轻黑猩猩脸上的“格林”实际上传达了恐惧和屈从,年轻黑猩猩在接近其部队中的男性时使用了“可怕的格林”。The “fear grin” on this chimpanzee’s face shows that he is willing to submit to a dominant male.
::这只黑猩猩脸上的 " 恐惧的笑容 " 表明,他愿意屈服于占支配地位的男性。In many species of monkeys, including baboons and some macaques, the skin around a female’s genitals periodically becomes swollen and brightly colored (usually bright red). This occurs when she is fertile and receptive to mating . This communicates to male monkeys that she may be approached for mating.
::在许多种类的猴子中,包括和一些怪兽,女性生殖器周围的皮肤定期会膨胀和亮色(通常是亮红色 ) 。 当她有生育能力并愿意交配时,就会出现这种情况。 这让男性猴子知道她可能会被接近来交配。Human Communication
::人文交流Human communication can be considered to be a highly developed form of animal communication. Humans show exceptional skill in communicating with one another through both auditory and visual means. In fact, the human ability to communicate may be one of the species’ most important capabilities. It is also key to most of the species’ achievements.
::人类交流可被视为一种高度发达的动物交流形式。 人类通过听力和视觉手段表现出非凡的沟通技巧。 事实上,人类交流能力可能是物种最重要的能力之一。 这也是大多数物种成就的关键。The most significant means of human communication is language. Language is the use of symbols to communicate. Although some other animal species are said to communicate through language, human language is far more complex than any other type of animal communication. Words in human languages are symbols that represent objects, actions, emotions, or ideas. All humans, regardless of their genetic makeup or the culture into which they were born, are able to learn any human language, especially if they are exposed to it early in life. During the first few years after birth, humans can learn a language without any formal education and long before they develop many other mental abilities. All it takes is being surrounded by the speech of parents or other people and practicing the language.
::人类交流的最重要手段是语言,语言是使用符号进行交流。虽然据说其他一些动物通过语言进行交流,但人类语言比任何其他类型的动物交流要复杂得多。人类语言中的文字是代表物体、行动、情感或思想的符号。所有人类,不论其基因构成或出生文化如何,都能够学习任何人类语言,特别是如果在出生后最初几年就接触过语言。在出生后的头几年里,人类可以学习一种语言,而无需受过任何正规教育,而且远比任何其他类型的动物交流方式都复杂得多。所有需要的东西都被父母或其他人的言语所包围,并练习语言。Humans also communicate a great deal of information visually. Like other primates, humans use facial expressions, gestures, and body postures to send and receive information. In humans, this is called body language. Examples of body language include smiling, shrugging the shoulders, and shaking the head. Can you think of other examples? What body language would you use to express affection? To express fear? Another way in which humans communicate visually is by writing and reading language or using images such as pictures and charts.
::人类也通过视觉传递大量信息。像其他灵长类人一样,人类使用面部表情、手势和身体姿势发送和接收信息。在人类中,这被称为身体语言。身体语言的例子包括微笑、肩部扭动和摇头。你能想到其他例子吗?你会用哪种身体语言表达感情?表达恐惧?表达恐惧?另一种人类通过写作和阅读语言或使用图片和图表等图像进行视觉交流的方式。Display Behavior
::显示行为行为Without communication, social living would not be possible. In fact, many social behaviors serve mainly as a means of communication among members of a species. A special type of that many species use for communication is called display behavior . Display behavior is ritualized behavior that communicates specific information. A ritual is a fixed set of actions that is symbolic. In other words, the set of actions stands for something else. For example, the honeybee “dances” that were described in the Animal Behavior: Innate (Advanced) concept communicate to other members of the colony where to find food . Another example of display behavior is a peacock (male peafowl) fanning out his big ornamental tail feathers (see Figure ). This display may be used to warn other peacocks to stay away or to attract peahens (female peafowls) for mating. Many species of birds perform “dances” to attract mates. Display behaviors are described in more detail in later sections in the contexts of aggression and mating.
::没有交流,社会生活是不可能的。事实上,许多社会行为主要是作为物种成员之间的沟通手段。许多物种用于交流的特殊类型,称为显示行为。显示行为是传递具体信息的仪式行为。仪式是固定的一组行动,具有象征意义。换句话说,一系列行动代表了别的东西。例如,动物行为中描述的蜜蜂“舞”概念:内在(高级)概念将概念传递给聚居区其他成员寻找食物。另一个显示行为的例子就是一只孔雀(雄性豌鸟)扇出他的大观赏尾羽(见图 ) 。这个显示可以用来警告其他孔雀远离或吸引(雌梨禽)交配。许多鸟类为吸引伴侣而表演“舞”。在侵略和交配情中稍后部分更详细地描述了显示行为。By displaying his large fan-shaped tail, this peacock is trying to communicate to peahens that he is an attractive mate. The display may also “tell” other peacocks to stay away.
::这个孔雀通过展示他的大扇形尾巴,试图向泥炭人传达他是一个有吸引力的伴侣。 展示也可以“告诉”其他孔雀远离。Pheromones
::热聚苯Another way many animals communicate is with pheromones . Pheromones are chemicals, secreted by special glands, that trigger responses in other organisms, usually members of the same species. The other organisms smell the pheromones or detect them in some other way. Pheromones are especially important in eusocial such as ants and bees, but they are also common in mammals . Pheromones may be secreted in urine , feces , or sweat. For example, when male dogs urinate on fire hydrants or trees, they are using pheromones in urine to mark their territory so other dogs will stay away. Pheromones may also be secreted directly on the ground, on objects, or on other organisms.
::另一种方式是许多动物与pheomones进行交流。 Pheromones是化学物质,由特殊的腺体进行隐蔽,引起其他生物(通常是同一物种的成员)的反应。其他生物体嗅到或以其他方式检测到这些化学物质。Pheromones在诸如蚂蚁和蜜蜂等社会性动物中特别重要,但在哺乳动物中也非常常见。Pheromones可能在尿液、粪便或汗水中被隐蔽。例如,当雄狗在消防水合物或树上撒尿时,它们用Pheromones在尿液中作标记,以便其他狗远离它们。Pheromones也可能直接在地面、物体或其他生物体内被隐匿。Ants secrete many different pheromones, and they use their antennae to detect pheromones secreted by other ants. In fact, pheromones explain how ants are able to cooperate and maintain their complex, well-organized societies . Different ant pheromones have different purposes. Some attract mates, others signal all the ants in the colony to come together, and still others warn of danger. For example, when any potential danger — from a spider to a lawnmower — threatens an ant colony, the first ant to detect the threat will secrete a warning pheromone that alerts all the other ants of the danger. Several different pheromones are secreted only by the queen of the colony. One of these prevents young female ants from becoming fertile. When the queen dies and stops producing this pheromone, young females can become fertile, and one is raised by the workers to become the new queen.
::蚂蚁秘密了多种不同的外激素, 它们用天线探测由其他蚂蚁秘密的外激素。 事实上, 外激素可以解释蚂蚁如何合作并维持复杂的、组织良好的社会。 不同的蚂蚁有不同的目的。 有些吸引伴侣, 另一些则发出蚁群内所有蚂蚁聚集的信号, 还有一些则发出危险警告。 例如, 当任何潜在的危险 — — 从蜘蛛到草坪虫 — — 威胁到蚂蚁群时, 第一个发现威胁的蚂蚁将隐藏一个警示的外激素, 提醒所有其他的蚂蚁注意危险。 若干不同的外激素只由蚁群的王后保密。 其中之一是防止年轻女性蚂蚁繁殖。 当蚁死亡并停止生产这种外激素时, 年轻女性可以生育, 一个被工人培养成为新后。Other ant pheromones are used to mark trails. When an ant finds a source of food, it marks its trail on the way back to the nest by secreting a pheromone on the ground. Other ants follow the pheromone trail to the food source. On their way back to the nest, they reinforce the trail by secreting more of the pheromone. This continues until the food is gone.
::其它蚂蚁的外激素被用于标记路径。 当蚂蚁找到食物来源时, 它会在返回巢穴的路上通过在地面上隐藏一种外激素来标记它的踪迹。 其他蚂蚁跟随外激素的踪迹到食物来源。 在回到巢穴的路上, 它们通过隐藏更多的外激素来强化路径。 这一直持续到食物消失为止 。Insect pheromones are used to trap insect pests, including Japanese beetles and gypsy moths. For example, a pheromone that Japanese beetles secrete to attract mates is placed on bag traps. Japanese beetles are attracted by the pheromone and fly into the bags. They are unable to get out again because of the way the bags are constructed.
::昆虫的球素被用于捕捉昆虫虫害,包括日本甲虫和吉卜赛飞蛾。例如,日本将日本甲虫秘密以吸引伴侣的球迷放在袋笼中。日本甲虫被球迷吸引,飞入袋中。由于袋状结构,它们无法再次离开。Bees are also well known for communicating with pheromones. Like ants, bees use pheromones for a variety of purposes. For example, honeybees release pheromones to mark both food sources and their hives. Other pheromones stimulate bees in a hive to group together in a swarm, like the one shown in Figure . Like a queen ant, a queen bee produces a pheromone that interferes with the reproductive systems of other females in the colony. This ensures that the queen is the only fertile female in the hive. The same pheromone also attracts drones to the queen for mating.
::像蚂蚁一样,蜜蜂会使用花生素用于多种目的。例如,蜜蜂会释放花生酮,以标记食物来源及其蜂窝。其他的花生酮会刺激蜂群聚集在蜂巢中,如图所示的蜂群。像蚁蚁一样,蜂会产生一种干扰蚁群中其他雌性生殖系统的花生酮。这确保了蜂后是唯一肥沃的雌性蜂。同样的花生酮也会吸引无人机到蜂后进行交配。This swarm of bees is preparing for flight. Pheromones from other bees in the hive signaled the bees to swarm.
::这群蜜蜂正在准备飞翔 蜂巢里其他蜜蜂的Pheromones代表蜜蜂群Some studies suggest that humans secrete pheromones that influence the behavior of other humans. For example, when mature females live in close quarters, such as college dormitories, their menstrual cycles may become synchronized. In other words, after awhile, their menstrual periods start and stop at the same time. This has led researchers to speculate that human females secrete pheromones around the time of menstruation that influence the menstrual cycles of other females with whom they have close contact. A similar phenomenon occurs in mice. Female mouse reproductive cycles are regulated by pheromones secreted by male mice.
::一些研究表明,人类秘密的外激素会影响其他人类的行为。例如,当成年雌性生活在大学宿舍等近邻时,它们的月经周期可能会同步。换句话说,经过一段时间后,它们的月经期开始并同时停止。这使得研究人员推测,在月经期间前后,人类雌性秘密的外激素会影响与其有密切联系的其他雌性的月经周期。在老鼠中也会出现类似现象。雌鼠生殖周期由雄性小鼠秘密的外激素调节。Summary
::摘要-
Communication is necessary for cooperation among members of a species.
::交流是物种成员之间合作的必要条件。 -
Forms of intraspecies communication include auditory, visual, display rituals, and pheromones.
::物种内部交流的形式包括听觉、视觉、展示仪式和费洛蒙。 -
Examples of animals that use auditory communication include monkeys, bullfrogs, and birds.
::动物使用听觉交流的例子包括猴子、公牛蛙和鸟类。
Review
::回顾-
What is the difference between intraspecies communication and interspecies communication? Give examples of both.
::物种内部交流和物种间交流有什么区别?请举例说明两者。 -
Give an example of each of the following:
-
Auditory communication.
::监听交流。 -
Visual communication.
::视觉交流。 -
Display behavior.
::显示行为 。 -
Pheromones.
::费洛蒙
::举例说明以下各点:观众交流、视觉交流、显示行为、Pheromones。 -
Auditory communication.
-
Do humans communicate using pheromones?
::人类用费洛蒙交流吗?
-
Monkeys cry out a warning when a predator is near. The warning call gives other members of the troop a chance to escape. Vervet monkeys have different calls, depending on the predator.
