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  • 鸟类繁殖 - 高级

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    Is this pair of actually a "couple?"
    ::这一对是"双胞胎"吗?

    Yes. Birds do actually pair up each mating season, if not for life. And the male better be prepared to treat his female properly. There is actually an elaborate process in which the female chooses her mate.
    ::是的,鸟儿确实在每个交配季节都配对,如果不是一生的话。 雄鸟最好做好正确对待雌鸟的准备。 事实上,有一个复杂的过程让雌鸟选择自己的伴侣。

    Reproduction in Birds
    ::鸟类生殖

    Breeding usually involves some form of display, typically performed by the male. Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of song. Some displays, however, are quite elaborate. Females are usually the ones that choose a mate from competing males; however, there are in which the male chooses from a group of competing females.
    ::育种通常涉及某种形式的展示,通常由男性表演,大多数展示相当简单,涉及某种类型的歌曲,但有些展示相当精细,女性通常从竞争男性中选择伴侣,但也有男性从竞争女性群体中选择伴侣的情况。

    Although most male birds have no external sex organs , the males have two testes that become larger during the breeding season to produce . The female has two ovaries , although only the left ovary usually functions. However, if the left ovary is damaged by infection or other problems, the right ovary will try to function.
    ::虽然大多数雄鸟没有外部性器官,但雄鸟有两个睾丸,在繁殖季节产卵。 雌鸟有两个卵巢,尽管通常只有左卵巢功能。 但是,如果左卵巢因感染或其他问题受损,右卵巢将试图起作用。

    During mating, the male passes his sperm to the female by pressing his cloaca to the female’s cloaca. This can happen very fast, sometimes in less than half a second. The sperm is stored in the female's sperm storage tubules for a week to a year, depending on the species. Then, eggs will be fertilized individually as they leave the ovaries, before being laid by the female. The eggs continue their outside the female’s body.
    ::在交配期间,男性将精子传给雌性,按母性乳房切开阴道。 这可能很快发生,有时不到半秒。 精子储存在雌性精子储卵管里一周到一年,视物种而定。 然后,卵子在离开卵巢时将单独受精,然后由雌性产卵。 卵子在雌性身体外继续产卵。

    Nesting and Parental Care
    ::晚间照料和父母照料

    Ninety-five percent of bird species are socially monogamous. That is, a male and female bird will pair for at least the length of the breeding season or, in some cases, for several years or until the death of one mate. Monogamy allows for care of the fledglings by both parents. Some birds are polygamous; they have many mates in a breeding season. Among most groups of , male is rare. In birds, however, it is quite common — more so than in any other vertebrate class.
    ::95%的鸟类物种为社会一夫一妻制,也就是说,雄性和雌性鸟类将至少配对育种季节,有时甚至配对几年,或直到一方死亡。一夫一妻制可以让父母双亲照顾幼鸟。有些鸟类是一夫多妻的,在育种季节有许多配偶。在大多数组别中,雄性是稀有的。但是,在鸟类中,它非常常见,比任何其他脊椎动物类更常见。

    Birds usually lay and incubate their eggs in a nest. While the term popularly refers to a structure made by the bird itself, a nest can also be a shallow depression made in sand, a burrow dug into the ground, a chamber drilled into a tree, or a mud dome with an entrance tunnel. Some species of cave swiftlets make their nests entirely from their saliva , which dries and hardens to form a bracket on the cave wall into which the birds lay their eggs. Eggs are usually incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. The length and nature of parental care varies widely amongst different orders and species.
    ::鸟类通常在巢中产卵并孵化卵。 俗称鸟本身所造结构,而巢也可以是沙中形成的浅度抑郁症、挖地洞、钻入树中的洞穴、钻入树中的洞穴或带入口隧道的泥丘。 某些洞穴小鸟的巢完全来自它们的唾液,它们干燥和硬化以形成鸟卵所产洞穴壁上的括号。 卵通常由父母孵化。 多数鸟类在孵化后有很长的育儿时间。 父母照料的时间和性质在不同的顺序和物种之间差别很大。

    Some bird species have no nests; the cliff-nesting Common Guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male Emperor Penguins incubate their single egg in a brood pouch between their body and feet. The absence of nests is especially common in ground-nesting species, where the newly hatched young are able to take care of themselves after hatching.
    ::一些鸟类物种没有巢穴;位于悬崖边的Guillemot Common Guillemot(Guillemot)在赤裸的岩石上产卵,而雄企鹅皇帝企鹅则在它们身体和脚之间的小弟弟袋中孵化他们的单蛋。 缺乏巢穴在底栖物种中特别常见,在那里,新孵化出来的年轻人在孵化后能够照顾自己。

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    These raptors have taken up home in Bridgenorth, Ontario. Birds can as easily nest in urban settings such as utility poles and buildings. The nest is constructed of twigs and lined with bark, pine needles, or other plant material.

    Eggs
    ::蛋蛋

    All birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate. Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs, while open nesters tend to lay camouflaged eggs, as shown in  Figure . Before nesting, the females of most bird species molt feathers from their belly area, developing a bare brood patch. The skin of the brood patch is well supplied with and is therefore warm, which helps to incubate eggs.
    ::所有鸟儿都产出以碳酸钙为主的硬壳的羊蛋。 洞和洞巢物种往往产出白蛋或苍白蛋,而开阔巢物种往往产出伪装的鸡蛋,如图所示。 在筑巢之前,大多数鸟类物种的雌性从腹部割羽毛,形成一个裸露的胸罩。胸罩的皮肤供应充足,因此很温暖,有助于孵化蛋。

    Incubation , which maintains temperature for chick development, usually begins after the last egg has been laid. In monogamous species, incubation duties are often shared, whereas in polygamous species, one parent is wholly responsible for incubation. Warmth from the parents passes to the eggs through brood patches. Incubation can be an energetically demanding process; adult albatrosses, for example, lose as much as 83 grams (2.9oz) of body weight per day of incubation. Incubation periods range from 10 days (in woodpeckers, cuckoos, and passerine birds) to over 80 days (in albatrosses and kiwis).
    ::在一夫一妻的物种中,孕育责任往往由一方共同承担,而在一夫多妻的物种中,父母一方对孕育负全部责任。从父母的温暖通过小肠补丁传给鸡蛋。孵化可能是一个要求很高的过程;例如,成人信天翁每天孵化时会损失多达83克(2.9oz)体重。孵化期从10天(在木鸟、木鸟和过敏鸟中)到80天(在信天翁和木鸟中)不等。

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    Camouflaged eggs. The eggs of the western snowy plover (Charadrius alexandrinus nivosus), which are laid in nests on the ground, are camouflaged to blend in with a nest of salt and dirt.

    Not all mother birds are very attentive to their chicks. Cuckoos ( Cuculus canorus ) leave the raising of their young to other birds - a process called brood parasite behavior. The female cuckoo will lay her eggs in another bird’s nest, usually a Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus scirpaceus ). The cuckoo’s eggs are a similar color to the warbler’s eggs, so they are not noticed by the mother warbler. When the young cuckoo hatches, it will push all other nestlings and eggs out of the nest. The Reed Warbler will feed and raise the cuckoo chick as its own.
    ::并非所有母鸟都非常关心小鸡。 幼鸟(Cuculs canorus)让其他小鸟抚养幼鸟 — — 这个过程被称为小鸟寄生虫行为。 母鸟会在另一个鸟巢中产卵,通常为Reed Warbler(Acrocephalus scirpaceus ) 。 幼鸟的蛋与小鸟的蛋颜色相似,因此母鸟没有注意到它们。 当幼鸟孵化出来时,它会把所有其他的鸟巢和卵都从巢中挤出来。 幼鸟会喂养和养小鸟。

    Hatchlings
    ::批处理

    There are two general types of hatchlings . Some newly hatched birds are naked and helpless and are called altricial ( Figure ). Others are hatched precocial ; they are feathered and able to walk and feed themselves very soon after hatching (also shown in  Figure ).
    ::有两种一般的孵化鸟:一些新孵化的鸟类是裸体的,无助的,被称为大肠杆菌(图);其他的则在孵化前孵化;它们有羽毛,能够在孵化后很快行走和喂养自己(图也显示了这一点)。

    Birds that nest on the ground, such as ducks, chickens, and swans, have precocial broods. Birds that nest off the ground, in trees, hedges, or buildings tend to have altricial young that need to be taken care of by the parents for a relatively long time.
    ::在地上筑巢的鸟类,如鸭子、鸡和天鹅等,都有前科小弟弟。 在地上筑巢的鸟类,在树、篱笆或建筑物中,往往有需要父母照顾相当长一段时间的幼体。

    Male and female parents often share duties involved in raising young. These include territory and nest site defense, incubation, and chick feeding. However, there are species in which one mate undertakes all or most of a particular duty.
    ::男性父母和女性父母往往分担抚养年轻子女的责任,包括领地和巢穴防守、孵化和小鸡喂养。 但是,有些物种中,一个伴侣承担了全部或大部分特定义务。

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    The chicks on the left are hatched altricial. They are blind, naked, and helpless and need to be cared for by their parents. Young domestic chickens (Gallus gallus), on the right, are hatched precocial; they are able to take care of themselves. Their eyes are open, they have warm, downy feathers, and they can walk and run quite well.

    Migration
    ::移徙移徙移徙

    Many bird species migrate to take advantage of different seasonal temperatures in different parts of the world. The migrations are usually triggered by the length of daylight as well as weather conditions. Before , birds increase their body fat content and reduce the size of some of their organs.
    ::许多鸟类为利用世界不同地区不同的季节性温度而迁徙,这些迁徙通常由日光和天气条件引发,在此之前,鸟类增加体内脂肪含量,减少某些器官的体积。

    Migrations vary among different groups of birds. The most common pattern involves flying north to breed in the or summer, and then returning to wintering grounds in warmer regions to the south. The primary advantage of migration is to conserve energy . The longer days of the northern summer provide greater opportunities for breeding birds to feed their young. The extended daylight hours allow migratory birds to produce larger broods than related, non-migratory species that remain in equatorial regions year-round. As autumn (fall) days shorten in the Northern Hemisphere, the birds return south to warmer regions where the food supply is more plentiful.
    ::不同鸟类群的移徙情况各异,最常见的模式是在夏季或夏季向北飞去繁殖,然后返回南方较温暖地区的冬季地区,移徙的主要优势是节能,北方夏日的延长为繁殖鸟类喂养幼鸟提供了更多的机会,白天的延长使迁徙鸟类能够生产比赤道地区全年存在的相关非放牧物种更大的小溪,随着北半球秋季(秋天)日数的缩短,鸟类返回南方,回到食物供应较为充足的较温暖的地区。

    Some birds in Northern latitudes migrate to more southern latitudes in winter. In this way, they can avoid the food shortages. The Fieldfare ( Turdus pilaris ) is a member of the thrush family Turdida that breeds in woodlands and scrubs in northern Europe and Asia. It is strongly migratory and flies to more southern latitudes, such as Great Britain and Ireland, where winter weather is milder and food is more plentiful.
    ::北方纬度的一些鸟类在冬季迁移到较南纬度的地区,这样他们就可以避免食物短缺。 Fieldfare(Turdus pilaris)是北欧和亚洲在林地和洗涤剂中繁殖的Turdida家族的成员。 它高度迁移,飞到更南纬度的地区,如大不列颠和爱尔兰,那里的冬季天气比较温和,食物比较丰富。

    Many birds migrate long distances. Bar-tailed Godwits ( Limosa lapponica ) have the longest known non-stop migration of any species: up to 10,200 km (6,300 miles) from Alaska to New Zealand.
    ::许多鸟类长途迁徙。 以酒吧为目的地的 Godwits(Limosa happonica)拥有已知任何物种最长的无止境迁徙:从阿拉斯加到新西兰的迁徙时间高达10,200公里(6,300英里)。

    Communication
    ::通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯通讯

    Birds communicate using primarily visual and auditory signals. Birds sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance, to display breeding condition, or to make threatening displays. The Sunbittern's mimicry of a large predator , as shown in  Figure , is used to ward off hawks and protect young chicks. Variation in plumage also allows for the identification of birds, particularly between species. Visual among birds may also involve ritualized displays. The most elaborate displays occur during courtship, where "dances" are often formed from complex combinations of many possible component movements .
    ::鸟类主要使用视觉和听觉信号进行交流。鸟类有时使用羽毛来评估和确定社会主导地位,展示繁殖条件,或进行威胁性展示。如图所示,太阳比特人模仿大型捕食者,用来避开鹰并保护小鸡。羽毛的变化还有助于识别鸟类,特别是物种之间的鸟类。鸟类之间的视觉还可能涉及仪式化的显示。在求爱期间,最精密的显示发生在求爱期间,在那里,“舞”往往由许多可能的组成部分运动的复杂组合形成。

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    A Sunbittern (Eurypyga helias) shows its bright eyespots in red, yellow, and black. This display is shown to other sunbitterns in courtship and threat displays, or it is used to startle potential predators.

    Bird calls and songs, which are produced in the syrinx, are the major means by which birds communicate with sound. The syrinx is the sound-producing, vocal organ of birds, located at the base of a bird's trachea . As with the mammalian larynx , sound is produced by the vibration of air flowing through the organ. This communication can be very complex; some species can operate the two sides of the syrinx independently, allowing the simultaneous production of two different songs. Calls are used for different reasons such as attracting a mate, to defend territories, to identify family members (such as when parents look for chicks in colonies), and to warn others of potential predators.
    ::鸟类的呼声和歌声是鸟类与声音交流的主要手段,而鸟类的呼声和歌声是鸟类与声音交流的主要手段,而鸟类的呼声和歌声是位于鸟类气管底部的产生声音的、声音的鸟类器官。与哺乳动物喉咙一样,声音是由空气通过该器官流动的振动产生的。这种交流可能非常复杂;某些物种可以独立操作该syrinx的两侧,允许同时制作两首不同的歌曲。呼声被用于不同的原因,如吸引伴侣、保卫领地、识别家庭成员(例如父母在殖民地寻找小鸡)和警告其他潜在掠食者。

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Birds pair up each mating season, if not for life.
      ::每个交配季节鸟儿都配对,如果不是一辈子的话。
    • Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male.
      ::养殖通常涉及某种形式的求偶展示,通常由男性进行。
    • During mating, the male passes his sperm to the female by pressing his cloaca to the female’s cloaca.
      ::男性在交配期间将精子传给女性,
    • Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching.
      ::大多数鸟类在孵化后有较长的育儿期。
    • All birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate.
      ::所有鸟儿都产出羊蛋 硬壳主要由碳酸钙制成
    • Some newly hatched birds are naked and helpless (altricial), while others are hatched feathered and able to walk and feed themselves (precocial).
      ::一些新孵化的鸟类是赤裸裸的、无助的(儿科的),而另一些则被孵化成羽毛,能够行走和养活自己(前科的)。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. Do male birds or female birds choose their mate?
      ::雄鸟还是雌鸟 选择自己的伴侣?
    2. How do birds mate?
      ::鸟儿怎么交配?
    3. Are birds mostly monogamous or polygamous?
      ::鸟类大多为一夫一妻制还是一夫多妻制?
    4. What is the purpose of a brood patch?
      ::胸罩有什么用?
    5. What is the difference between altricial and precocial offspring? Which birds usually have which type of hatchling?
      ::产卵和出生前后代之间有什么区别?哪只鸟类通常有哪一种孵化?
    6. How does migration aid in reproduction for birds?
      ::移徙如何帮助鸟类繁殖?

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